Investigations into a trigger-based approach for initiating emergency vaccination to augment stamping out of foot-and-mouth disease in New Zealand: a simulation study.

AIMS: To investigate an adaptive management approach to the deployment of emergency vaccination as an additional measure to stamping out (SO) during simulated outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in New Zealand. METHODS: A simulation modelling (n=6000 simulations) approach was used. The study population comprised all known farms in New Zealand with FMD-susceptible livestock. Each simulation started with infection seeded into a single randomly selected farm. Each outbreak was randomly assigned to one of four control strategies, comprising SO only; trigger-based vaccination (TRV) where SO was augmented with vaccination if an early decision indicator trigger operating between Days 11-35 of the response indicated a large outbreak was developing; SO plus vaccination started randomly on Days 11-35 of the response (VACr); and SO plus vaccination with a fixed start on Day 21 of the response (VACf). Other parameters, such as the number of personnel available were also varied randomly. Generalised additive models (GAM) were used to evaluate variables associated with the number of infected premises (IP) and epidemic duration. RESULTS: The mean number of IP was 29 (median 9, min 1, max 757), while epidemics lasted on average 26.9 (median 18, min 1, max 220) days. These excluded 303 extreme outbreaks larger than the UK 2001 FMD epidemic (2,030 cases). Univariable analysis of the pooled vaccination results vs. SO, showed that vaccination significantly reduced the number of IP (p<0.001) and outbreak duration (p<0.001). GAM of large outbreaks revealed that only the TRV strategy was significantly protective compared to SO alone, reducing the odds of a large outbreak by 22% (OR=0.78; 95% CI=0.63-0.96). The number of veterinarians was non-linearly associated with large outbreaks, with low numbers increasing the odds of a large outbreak, but above 200 veterinarians, the odds reduced. Time to first detection was also non-linearly associated with large outbreaks, with detections <13 days protective and longer detection times increasing the odds of a large outbreak. GAM of long outbreaks showed similar findings, except that all three vaccination strategies significantly reduced duration. Overall, the TRV strategy resulted in the smallest and shortest epidemics. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: An adaptive management approach that deployed vaccination in response to a trigger when a large outbreak was developing outperformed SO and reduced the odds of large or long outbreaks more than the other two vaccination strategies, although the differences between the three vaccination strategies were statistically small. This study provides highly relevant insights into the dynamics of disease establishment and spread that will guide New Zealand's readiness for responding to highly infectious disease incursions such as FMD.

Estimating the level of disease risk and biosecurity on commercial poultry farms in New Zealand.

Aims: To collect baseline data on the contact risk pathways and biosecurity practices of commercial poultry farms in New Zealand, investigate the relationship between the farm-level disease contact risks and biosecurity practices, and identify important poultry health concerns of producers. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of all registered New Zealand commercial poultry operations was conducted in 2016 collecting information on farm demographics, biosecurity practices, and contact risk pathways. Survey responses were used to generate an unweighted subjective disease risk score based on eight risk criteria and a subjective biosecurity score based on the frequency with which producers reported implementing seven biosecurity measures. Producer opinions towards poultry health issues were also determined. Results: Responses to the survey response were obtained from 120/414 (29.0%) producers, including 57/157 (36.3%) broiler, 33/169 (19.5%) layer, 24/55 (44%) breeder, and 6/32 (19%) other poultry production types. Median disease risk scores differed between production types (p < 0.001) and were lowest for breeder enterprises. The greatest risk for layer and broiler enterprises was from the potential movement of employees between sheds, and for breeder enterprises was the on- and off-farm movement of goods and services. Median biosecurity scores also differed between production types (p < 0.001), and were highest for breeder and broiler enterprises. Across all sectors there was no statistical correlation between biosecurity scores and disease risk scores. Producers showed a high level of concern over effectively managing biosecurity measures. Conclusions: The uptake of biosecurity measures in the commercial poultry farms surveyed was highly variable, with some having very low scores despite significant potential disease contact risks. This may be related to the low prevalence or absence of many important infectious poultry diseases in New Zealand leading farmers to believe there is a limited need to maintain good biosecurity as well as farmer uncertainty around the efficacy of different biosecurity measures. Further research is needed to understand barriers towards biosecurity adoption including evaluating the cost-effectiveness of biosecurity interventions.

Biosecurity in endemic foot and mouth disease settings: a case study of foot and mouth disease vaccination in South-East Asia.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection affecting cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and pigs. The disease is endemic in several parts of Asia, as well as most of Africa and the Middle East. In 1997, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) established the South-East Asia Foot and Mouth Disease Campaign with the aim of increasing livestock sector productivity and economic output through the control and eradication of FMD in South-East Asia. Large-scale vaccination of livestock against FMD has in the past led to the successful eradication (or control) of the disease, for example in the Philippines. However, despite the benefit associated with large-scale vaccination, biosecurity risks can be created by vaccination teams moving between locations. It is therefore recommended that biosecurity measures are used by vaccination teams to prevent inadvertent disease spread. The majority of existing guidelines are focused on high-risk situations such as exotic animal disease outbreaks in developed countries, or agents posing a risk to human health. This paper describes the development of novel biosecurity guidelines for vaccination teams in South-East Asia. To achieve this, available literature was scanned followed by in-country workshops and field-testing of draft materials. Entry and exit procedures are laid out within the context of five core rules that follow the biosecurity principles of situational awareness, segregation, cleaning and disinfection. Guidelines and accompanying fact sheets were translated into local languages and included in a comprehensive vaccination training programme for all vaccination teams undertaking cattle FMD vaccination programmes in the New Zealand OIE FMD control project target countries (Myanmar and Laos). The material developed has wide practical relevance to veterinarians, traditional healers and village or community animal health workers, who all pose a heightened risk of spreading infectious agents.

La fièvre aphteuse est une maladie virale extrêmement contagieuse affectant les artiodactyles (dont les bovins, les buffles, les ovins, les caprins et les porcins). La maladie est présente à l'état endémique dans plusieurs régions d'Asie, dans presque toute l'Afrique et au Moyen-Orient. En 1997, l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) a lancé la Campagne de lutte contre la fièvre aphteuse en Asie du Sud-Est afin d'améliorer la productivité et la rentabilité économique du secteur de l'élevage à travers la lutte contre la fièvre aphteuse voire son éradication de la sous-région. Grâce à la vaccination à grande échelle du bétail, certains pays ont pu éradiquer (ou du moins contrôler) la fièvre aphteuse dans le passé, par exemple les Philippines. Si la vaccination à grande échelle est en soi bénéfique, elle comporte certains risques de biosécurité, liés aux déplacements des équipes de vaccination d'un site à l'autre. Il est donc recommandé que ces équipes appliquent des mesures de biosécurité visant à prévenir toute propagation accidentelle de la maladie. La plupart des lignes directrices existantes sont axées sur les situations présentant un niveau de risque élevé, par exemple la survenue de foyers de maladies animales exotiques dans les pays développés, ou d'agents pathogènes qui constituent un risque pour la santé publique. Dans cet article, les auteurs décrivent la méthodologie suivie pour élaborer des lignes directrices innovantes de biosécurité en Asie du Sud-Est, destinées aux équipes de vaccination. Ces lignes directrices ont été rédigées en passant en revue la littérature sur le sujet lors d'ateliers nationaux et en testant sur le terrain les projets de documents. Les procédures d'entrée et de sortie ont été établies en suivant cinq règles fondamentales fondées sur les grands principes de la biosécurité, à savoir la connaissance de la situation, la ségrégation, le nettoyage et la désinfection. Les lignes directrices et les fiches explicatives qui les accompagnent ont été traduites en langues locales et utilisées dans le cadre d'un programme complet de formation à la vaccination destiné à l'ensemble des équipes de vaccination participant aux programmes de vaccination du cheptel bovin contre la fièvre aphteuse dans les pays couverts par le projet Nouvelle-Zélande­OIE de lutte contre la fièvre aphteuse (Myanmar et Laos). Les matériels proposés présentent une utilité concrète pour les vétérinaires, les guérisseurs traditionnels et les auxiliaires communautaires ou villageois de santé animale, qui sont tous particulièrement exposés au risque de propager involontairement des agents de maladies infectieuses.

La fiebre aftosa es una infección vírica muy contagiosa que afecta a animales biungulados como el ganado vacuno, el búfalo, la oveja, la cabra o el cerdo. La enfermedad es endémica en varias zonas de Asia y en la mayor parte de África y Oriente Medio. En 1997, la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) instituyó la «Campaña de lucha contra la fiebre aftosa en el Sudeste asiático¼ con el objetivo de que el control y la erradicación de la enfermedad en la región se tradujeran en un aumento de la productividad y la rentabilidad económica del sector ganadero. En ocasiones anteriores la vacunación a gran escala del ganado ya ha resultado eficaz para erradicar (o controlar) la fiebre aftosa, por ejemplo en Filipinas. Sin embargo, pese a los beneficios que depara la vacunación a gran escala, los equipos que la llevan a cabo, al desplazarse de una a otra localidad, también pueden vehicular nuevos riesgos biológicos. Por ello se recomienda que esos equipos apliquen medidas de seguridad biológica destinadas a impedir la propagación accidental de la enfermedad. La mayoría de las directrices existentes al respecto están centradas en situaciones de gran riesgo, como brotes de enfermedades animales exóticas en países desarrollados o presencia de agentes infecciosos que entrañan peligro para la salud pública. Los autores describen la elaboración de nuevas directrices de seguridad biológica dirigidas a los equipos de vacunación que operan en el Sudeste asiático. Para empezar se hizo un repaso de la bibliografía existente, tras lo cual se celebraron talleres nacionales y se ensayaron sobre el terreno las medidas preconizadas en un primer borrador. Como parte de las directrices se instauran procedimientos de entrada y salida encuadrados en cinco reglas básicas que se ajustan a los grandes principios de seguridad biológica: conocimiento de la situación, segregación, limpieza y desinfección. Las directrices y las fichas descriptivas que las acompañan, una vez traducidas a los idiomas locales, fueron incluidas en un programa integral de formación en vacunaciones dirigido a todos los equipos que se disponían a intervenir en programas de vacunación antiaftosa del ganado en Myanmar y Laos, países beneficiarios del proyecto Nueva Zelanda­OIE de lucha contra la fiebre aftosa. El material elaborado reviste gran utilidad práctica para los veterinarios, curanderos tradicionales y trabajadores zoosanitarios de aldeas y comunidades, todos ellos portadores de un riesgo especialmente importante de propagar agentes infecciosos.

Evaluating vaccination strategies to control foot-and-mouth disease: a country comparison study.

Vaccination is increasingly being recognised as a potential tool to supplement 'stamping out' for controlling foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in non-endemic countries. Infectious disease simulation models provide the opportunity to determine how vaccination might be used in the face of an FMD outbreak. Previously, consistent relative benefits of specific vaccination strategies across different FMD simulation modelling platforms have been demonstrated, using a UK FMD outbreak scenario. We extended this work to assess the relative effectiveness of selected vaccination strategies in five countries: Australia, New Zealand, the USA, the UK and Canada. A comparable, but not identical, FMD outbreak scenario was developed for each country with initial seeding of Pan Asia type O FMD virus into an area with a relatively high density of livestock farms. A series of vaccination strategies (in addition to stamping out (SO)) were selected to evaluate key areas of interest from a disease response perspective, including timing of vaccination, species considerations (e.g. vaccination of only those farms with cattle), risk area vaccination and resources available for vaccination. The study found that vaccination used with SO was effective in reducing epidemic size and duration in a severe outbreak situation. Early vaccination and unconstrained resources for vaccination consistently outperformed other strategies. Vaccination of only those farms with cattle produced comparable results, with some countries demonstrating that this could be as effective as all species vaccination. Restriction of vaccination to higher risk areas was less effective than other strategies. This study demonstrates consistency in the relative effectiveness of selected vaccination strategies under different outbreak start up conditions conditional on the assumption that each of the simulation models provide a realistic estimation of FMD virus spread. Preferred outbreak management approaches must however balance the principles identified in this study, working to clearly defined outbreak management objectives, while having a good understanding of logistic requirements and the socio-economic implications of different control measures.

Systemic granulomatous and haemorrhagic syndrome in New Zealand dairy cattle.

CASE HISTORY: Cases were obtained through passive surveillance reporting by veterinary pathologists, via the Ministry for Primary Industries Exotic Pest and Disease Hotline. They included ill or dead cows that had evidence of frank haemorrhage, petechial haemorrhages on mucous membranes, wasting or dermatitis of unknown cause, and were reported between 2009-2014. Affected cows (n=16) were from nine seasonally calving dairy farms, aged ≥3 years, and were predominantly in their mid-to-late non-lactating period. A brassica crop was identified in 15/16 cases as part of the current or recent ration. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Eight cows were found dead or died within 2 days of first signs. In eight cases death or euthanasia took place up to 3 weeks after signs were first observed. Cattle clinically examined prior to death (n=11) were generally inappetant, and recumbent or reluctant to move. Five cases had pale mucous membranes, three had petechiae and two were jaundiced. Rectal temperature was normal to sub-normal in eight cases. Evidence of melena or fresh blood at the anus or mouth was found in five cases. In three cases, alopecia and skin thickening was present, predominantly affecting the head and neck. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: Petechiation of mucosal and internal serosal membranes, myocardium, subcutis and skeletal muscle was found in 10 cases. Frank haemorrhage was present in six cases, including haematomas of the subcutis, skeletal musculature, mesentery or omentum, and lumenal haemorrhage of the abomasum and/or intestine. In five cases pale nodules within myocardium and/or kidney, liver or spleen were present. Histopathologically, these were confirmed as granulomatous inflammatory lesions, which were also present within a wide range of tissues. Granulomatous foci typically comprised aggregates of macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, prominent multinucleated giant cells and eosinophils. DIAGNOSIS: Idiopathic multisystemic granulomatous and haemorrhagic disease, occurring sporadically in dairy cattle, in the absence of feeds or feed additives previously associated with comparable syndromes. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This is the first description of a novel systemic granulomatous and haemorrhagic syndrome seen in adult dairy cattle most often in their non-lactating period. The presentation can mimic important exotic disease differentials in New Zealand including anthrax, haemorrhagic septicaemia (associated with selected Pasteurella multocida strains) or infection with bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 2.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Red Deer - Experimental Infection and Test Methods Performance.

The aim of this study was to evaluate a number of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) test methods for use in red deer. Ten animals were intranasally inoculated with the FMD virus (FMDV) O UKG 11/2001, monitored for clinical signs, and samples taken regularly (blood, serum, oral swabs, nasal swabs, probang samples and lesion swabs, if present) over a 4-week period. Only one animal, deer 1103, developed clinical signs (lesions under the tongue and at the coronary band of the right hind hoof). It tested positive by 3D and IRES real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) in various swabs, lesion materials and serum. In a non-structural protein (NSP) in-house ELISA (NSP-ELISA-IH), one commercial ELISA (NSP-ELISA-PR) and a commercial antibody NSP pen side test, only deer 1103 showed positive results from day post-inoculation (dpi) 14 onwards. Two other NSP-ELISAs detected anti-NSP serum antibodies with lower sensitivity. It also showed rising antibody levels in the virus neutralization test (VNT), the in-house SPO-ELISA-IH and the commercial SPO-ELISA-PR at dpi 9, and in another two commercial SPO-ELISAs at dpi 12 (SPO-ELISA-IV) and dpi 19 (SPO-ELISA-IZ), respectively. Six of the red deer that had been rRT-PCR and antibody negative were re-inoculated intramuscularly with the same O-serotype FMDV at dpi 14. None of these animals became rRT-PCR or NSP-ELISA positive, but all six animals became positive in the VNT, the in-house SPO-ELISA-IH and the commercial SPO-ELISA-PR. Two other commercial SPO-ELISAs were less sensitive or failed to detect animals as positive. The rRT-PCRs and the four most sensitive commercial ELISAs that had been used for the experimentally inoculated deer were further evaluated for diagnostic specificity (DSP) using 950 serum samples and 200 nasal swabs from non-infected animals. DSPs were 100% for the rRT-PCRs and between 99.8 and 100% for the ELISAs.

Evaluating the benefits of vaccination when used in combination with stamping-out measures against hypothetical introductions of foot-and-mouth disease into New Zealand: a simulation study.

AIMS: To evaluate the benefits of vaccination against simulated outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in New Zealand, when applied as an additional measure to stamping-out. METHODS: A simulation modelling approach was used. The study population comprised all known farms in New Zealand with FMD-susceptible livestock. Infection was seeded into three different areas of New Zealand. Transmission mechanisms included direct and indirect contacts, local spread and airborne spread. Efficacies of some of the stamping-out measures were varied. Vaccination strategies involved different start times, size and type of vaccination zone, and species vaccinated. Personnel resources for vaccination were varied as was the herd immunity profile following vaccination. Altogether, 336 models were specified, with 100 iterations conducted for each model. Generalised linear modelling and boosted regression trees were used to evaluate which variables had the biggest effect on the number of infected premises (IP), epidemic duration and area under control. RESULTS: Vaccination, when used as an adjunct to the standard stamping-out programme, significantly reduced the outbreak size. Vaccination reduced the median number of IP by 26 (95% CI=18-35), epidemic duration by 16 (95% CI=13-19) days and area under control by 474 (95% CI=250-699) km2 when there was no airborne spread; and when there was airborne spread the median reduction was 87 (95% CI=70-105) IP, 32 (95% CI=28-35) days and 898 (95% CI=665-1139) km2, respectively. Multivariable analyses showed that starting vaccination 11 days after first detection of FMD produced greater benefits than starting 16 or 21 days after detection. Increasing vaccination zones resulted in increased benefits. Boosted regression tree analyses showed that the most influential variables on the outcome measures were interval to first detection, incursion location, whether there was airborne spread or not and herd immunity profile. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study showed that there are benefits to the use of vaccination in combination with a stamping-out policy for control of FMD outbreaks under New Zealand conditions. The optimal vaccination strategy was identified as being a 3-5 km radius suppressive vaccination zone deployed between 11-16 days after first detection. Vaccination had a greater benefit during larger outbreaks, such as when there was airborne transmission. The key factors which were identified from this study will help inform New Zealand's competent authority on how best to deploy vaccination to further strengthen its approach to FMD eradication should New Zealand ever experience an outbreak.

The First Detection of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in New Zealand.

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) has been considered exotic to New Zealand and thus, any samples from poultry suspected of ORT infection are submitted as part of an exotic disease investigation managed by Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and subjected to standardized test protocols carried out in the physical containment level 3+ laboratory at MPI's Animal Health Laboratory (AHL). All previous exotic disease investigations concerning ORT produced negative results by bacterial culture and conventional PCR. Following the recent introduction of a real-time PCR for ORT at the AHL, several tracheal wash fluids from backyard chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) were tested positive. This identification constituted the first detection of ORT in New Zealand poultry. As a result, a second premise was investigated with further samples testing positive for ORT by molecular assays. This paper describes the two exotic disease investigations associated with the first detection of ORT in New Zealand poultry and its implications.

Dermatomycosis caused by Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in five tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) and a coastal bearded dragon (Pogona barbata) in a zoological collection in New Zealand.

CASE HISTORY: Health monitoring of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) at Auckland Zoo between 2001 and 2009 showed that 58/93 tuatara had been affected by dermatitis of unknown origin. From 2011 onwards, cases of suspected fungal dermatitis underwent extensive diagnostic investigations. CLINCAL FINDINGS: Six cases of dermatomycosis were attributed to Paranannizziopsis australasiensis, five in tuatara and one in a coastal bearded dragon (Pogona barbata). Cases presented typically as raised, yellow to brown encrustations on the skin. Severe cases progressed to necrotising ulcerative dermatitis, and in the bearded dragon to fatal systemic mycosis. Following topical and systemic treatments, lesions resolved in all five tuatara. LABORATORY FINDINGS: Histopathological examination of skin biopsy samples revealed dermatitis with intralesional septate branching hyphae. Fungal culture yielded isolates morphologically resembling Chrysosporium species, and isolates were submitted for molecular confirmation and sequencing of DNA. DIAGNOSIS: All six cases were confirmed as dermatitis due to infection with P. australasiensis, on the basis of fungal culture and DNA sequencing of isolates. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These are the first reported cases of dermatomycosis associated with P. australasiensis infection in tuatara, and the first cases in which systemic therapeutic agents have been used in the treatment of such disease. Tuatara at the Auckland Zoo are now routinely examined every 3 months and tissue samples from any lesions sent for histopathology and fungal culture. Further work to elucidate the epidemiology and significance of P. australasiensis infections in reptiles in New Zealand is important for both welfare and conservation purposes.

Evaluating vaccination strategies to control foot-and-mouth disease: a model comparison study.

Simulation models can offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of different control strategies and act as important decision support tools when comparing and evaluating outbreak scenarios and control strategies. An international modelling study was performed to compare a range of vaccination strategies in the control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Modelling groups from five countries (Australia, New Zealand, USA, UK, The Netherlands) participated in the study. Vaccination is increasingly being recognized as a potentially important tool in the control of FMD, although there is considerable uncertainty as to how and when it should be used. We sought to compare model outputs and assess the effectiveness of different vaccination strategies in the control of FMD. Using a standardized outbreak scenario based on data from an FMD exercise in the UK in 2010, the study showed general agreement between respective models in terms of the effectiveness of vaccination. Under the scenario assumptions, all models demonstrated that vaccination with 'stamping-out' of infected premises led to a significant reduction in predicted epidemic size and duration compared to the 'stamping-out' strategy alone. For all models there were advantages in vaccinating cattle-only rather than all species, using 3-km vaccination rings immediately around infected premises, and starting vaccination earlier in the control programme. This study has shown that certain vaccination strategies are robust even to substantial differences in model configurations. This result should increase end-user confidence in conclusions drawn from model outputs. These results can be used to support and develop effective policies for FMD control.

Evidence for absence of equine arteritis virus in the horse population of New Zealand.

AIM: To summarise investigation and laboratory data collected between 2001 and 2011 to provide evidence that equine arteritis virus is not present in the horse population of New Zealand. METHODS: Analysis was carried out on results from laboratory tests carried out at the Ministry for Primary Industries Animal Health Laboratory (AHL) for equine arteritis virus from horses tested prior to being imported or exported, testing of stallions as part of the New Zealand equine viral arteritis (EVA) control scheme and testing as part of transboundary animal disease (TAD) investigations for exclusion of EVA. Horse breeds were categorised as Thoroughbred, Standardbred or other. RESULTS: A total of 7,157 EVA serological test records (from import and export testing, EVA control scheme testing and TAD investigations) were available for analysis between 2005 and 2011. For the three breed categories a seroprevalence of ≤1.6% at the 95% confidence level was determined for each category. Between 2001 and 2011, as part of the EVA control scheme, the EVA status of 465 stallions was determined to be negative. During 2005-2011 EVA was excluded from 84 TAD investigations. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence of equine arteritis virus being present in the general horse population outside of carrier stallions managed under the EVA control scheme. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Equine arteritis virus is absent from the general horse population of New Zealand.

An outbreak of haemolytic anaemia associated with infection of Theileria orientalis in naive cattle.

CASE HISTORY: An outbreak of haemolytic anaemia occurred when 87 cattle were introduced from a presumed non-infected herd from south Otago to a herd in Northland (n=580 cows), New Zealand, where theileriosis is endemic. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Clinical signs associated with Theileria spp. infection included lethargy, anorexia, inappetance, pale mucous membranes, and varying severity of anaemia. In the naive imported cattle, 11/29 (38%) of those tested showed haematological signs of anaemia (haematocrit (HCT) <0.25 L/L). A negative association was present between the HCT and the number of Theileria spp. organisms counted using light microscopy (correlation coefficient=-0.4; p<0.05). Haemoparasites consistent with Theileria spp. were observed on examination of a blood smear. Theileria orientalis group (Theileria buffeli/orientalis) species was confirmed using PCR and DNA sequencing, and other causes for anaemia were excluded in the most clinically severely affected cow. The 18S sequence data and phylogenetic analysis of the CoxIII sequences showed samples had the greatest similarity to T. orientalis Chitose from Japan. DIAGNOSIS: Haemolytic anaemia associated with infection of T. orientalis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Previous reports have suggested that T. orientalis group species may be non-pathogenic in healthy cattle, and an incidental finding in blood samples. However, this investigation provided evidence that in New Zealand, this pathogen is capable of causing clinical disease in cattle not necessarily debilitated by another disease. The potential for disease should be considered when naive cattle are brought in from non-endemic to endemic regions, for instance cattle from the South Island moved to regions where the vector for T. orientalis group species, Haemaphysalis longicornis, is active, and T. orientalis is present.

Surveillance for avian influenza virus subtypes H5 and H7 in chickens and turkeys farmed commercially in New Zealand.

AIM: To determine the status of avian influenza (AI) virus sub-types H5 and H7 of New Zealand's commercial chicken and turkey farms. METHODS: A cross-sectional serological survey, stratified by production sector, used a sample frame defined by those farms registered with the Poultry Industry Association of New Zealand (PIANZ) or the Egg Producers Federation of New Zealand (EPF). Sectors included were chicken broiler, caged/barn layer, free-range layer, pullet rearer and turkey broiler. The survey used a between- and within-farm design prevalence of 5% (95% confidence for chickens, 99% confidence for turkeys) and 30% (95% confidence), respectively, of AI virus subtypes H5 and H7. The epidemiological unit was the farm for the free-range layer sector, and the individual shed/barn for the other sectors. Serum samples were screened using a commercial generic influenza A indirect ELISA; positive samples were subjected to haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) testing for AI virus subtypes H5 and H7. A comprehensive investigation, that included widespread serological and antigenic screening, was carried out on all farms identified with serum reactors to either the H5 or H7 virus subtype. RESULTS: A total of 4,180 blood samples from 167 chicken and 10 turkey farms were collected and tested using ELISA. Positive ELISA results were returned from 26 farms, comprising 10 caged/barn layer, 14 free-range layer and two turkey (shed-raised) broiler farms. HI testing of ELISA-positive sera for the H7 subtype virus identified no positive sera in any sector. Reactors to the H5 subtype virus were limited to three free-range layer chicken farms; each farm returned a single serum reactor. Follow-up investigations on these free-range farms identified evidence of historic exposure to the H5 subtype virus on one farm, and concluded that the serum reactors identified in the initial sampling round on the other two farms were non-specific (false-positive) reactions. CONCLUSIONS: The survey found no evidence of active infection with notifiable AI viruses, and provided evidence of absence of exposure to AI virus subtypes H5 and H7 in the chicken broiler, caged/barn layer, turkey broiler and pullet-rearer sectors at a between- and within-farm prevalence of 5% and 30%, respectively, with 95% confidence. The results established commercial free-range layer farms as a risk sector for exposure to notifiable AI virus.

A cross-sectional study of ownership of backyard poultry in two areas of Palmerston North, New Zealand.

AIMS: To determine the proportion of residential land parcels with backyard poultry in an urban and urban-rural fringe area of provincial New Zealand. To document key husbandry and biosecurity practices of owners of backyard poultry, and to identify factors that might assist animal health authorities in locating backyard poultry flocks in the event of an infectious disease emergency. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was undertaken, in which residents of 449 land parcels in an urban and urban-rural fringe area within and adjacent to the city of Palmerston North, respectively, were visited between February and November 2006. Residents were asked if backyard poultry were kept on the premises. Details recorded for those that kept poultry included the type and number of birds kept, and details of management and biosecurity practices. The geographical distribution of poultry-positive land parcels was assessed for evidence of spatial clustering. RESULTS: Backyard poultry were kept on 3.5 (95% CI=2.1- 5.0)% of land parcels; 1.6 (95% CI=0.7-3.4)% in the urban area and 18.9 (95% CI=11.6-29.3)% in the urban-rural fringe area. There were no significant clusters of poultry-positive land parcels in either area. On all poultry-positive parcels birds were allowed, for at least a portion of the day, to range freely over the property. Three poultry-positive land parcels were within a distance of 1 km of a commercial poultry enterprise in the urban-rural fringe area. Most owners of backyard poultry used feed prepared commercially. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of ownership of backyard poultry in this area of New Zealand was low, and varied according to classification of the land, viz urban, or urban-rural fringe. The close proximity of backyard flocks to the single commercial enterprise in the urban-rural fringe area reiterates the importance of strict biosecurity measures on commercial farms. In the event of an infectious disease emergency, it is proposed that a sampling frame of owners of backyard poultry might be rapidly obtained by contacting suppliers of commercial feed.

Patterns of contact within the New Zealand poultry industry.

Members of the Poultry Industry Association and the Egg Producers Federation of New Zealand (n=420) were sent a questionnaire asking them to describe the type and frequency of on- and off-enterprise movements relating to feed, live birds and hatching eggs, table eggs and poultry product, and manure and waste litter. Social network analyses were used to describe patterns of contact among poultry enterprises and their associates for these four movement types. The response rate to the survey was 58% (244 out of 420). Network structures for enterprise-to-enterprise movements of feed, live birds and hatching eggs, and table egg and poultry product were characterised by 'hub and spoke' type structures with small-world characteristics. Small worlds were created by network hubs (e.g. feed suppliers and hatcheries) providing goods and services to larger numbers of client farms. In addition to hubs acting as the predominant source of material moving onto farms we identified enterprises acting as bridges between identified small worlds. The presence of these bridges is a concern, since their presence has the potential to facilitate the spread of hazards (e.g. feed contaminants, infectious agents carried within feed) more readily throughout the population. An ability to predict enterprises with these network characteristics on the basis of factors such as shed capacity, enterprise type, geographic location would be useful for developing risk-based approaches to disease prevention, surveillance, detection, response and control activities.

A cross-sectional survey of influenza A infection and management practices in small rural backyard poultry flocks in New Zealand.

AIM: To obtain baseline data on the management of small non-commercial backyard poultry flocks, in two rural regions of New Zealand, to investigate potential transmission pathways for avian influenza (AI), and to investigate the presence of AI in these flocks. METHODS: During August-October 2006 a questionnaire was sent to 105 farms in the Bay of Plenty and Wairarapa with poultry flocks comprising fewer than 50 chickens, located near wetlands where AI virus had been detected previously in wild ducks. Information was collected on the number and species of poultry reared, opportunities for interaction between wild birds and poultry, farm biosecurity measures, and health status of poultry. Between September and November 2006, blood and tracheal/cloacal swabs were collected from poultry on a subset of 12 high-risk farms in each location. Influenza A-specific antibodies in sera were assayed using ELISA, and positive sera were further tested for the presence of H5 and H7 subtype-specific antibodies, using haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay. The presence of influenza A virus in swabs was detected using real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR (RRT-PCR). RESULTS: Returned questionnaires were received from 54 farms. Overall, 80% had only chickens, 13% chickens and ducks, and 7% had chickens and other galliform species. Nearly all (96%) kept backyard chickens for personal consumption of eggs, with a small proportion (19%) preparing birds for the table. On surveyed farms wild waterfowl were seen on pastures (70%) and/or farm waterways (46%). Waterfowl were recorded as visiting areas where domestic birds were kept on 31% of farms. Bird litter and manure were composted (94%) or buried (6%) on-farm, as were most (82%) dead birds. During the targeted cross-sectional survey of 24 farms clinical disease was not recorded in any poultry flock. Of 309 chicken sera tested, 11 (3.6%) from five farms across both regions tested positive for influenza A antibodies. In contrast, 16/54 (30%) duck sera from three farms in the Wairarapa were positive. Avian influenza H5 and H7 subtype-specific antibodies were excluded in ELISA positive sera using HI testing, and influenza A virus was not detected using RRT-PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed that small backyard poultry flocks located near waterfowl habitats were exposed to non-notifiable low-pathogenic AI viruses. Findings indicate a number of potential risk pathways for the transmission of AI viruses between wild birds and non-commercial poultry, and hence the need for continued surveillance for AI in backyard flocks and wild birds in New Zealand.

Survey of bulk tank milk in New Zealand for Mycoplasma bovis , using species-specific nested PCR and culture.

AIM: To survey the dairy cattle population in New Zealand for the presence or absence of Mycoplasma bovis. METHODS: A random cross-sectional survey of bulk tank milk from dairy herds in New Zealand based on regionally proportioned sampling, weighted towards herds with a high bulk tank milk somatic cell count (SCC) was used to detect M. bovis at a between-herd prevalence of 2%, with 99% confidence. Bulk tank milk samples collected on-farm were tested using a nested M. bovis PCR, and bacteriological culture employing enrichment in mycoplasma broth and direct plating onto mycoplasma agar. RESULTS: Mycoplasma bovis was not detected in any of the 244 bulk tank milk samples by either PCR or culture. CONCLUSIONS: This survey provides further evidence that M. bovis is not present in the dairy cattle population in New Zealand.

Juvenile nephropathy in a Samoyed bitch.

A case of juvenile nephropathy is reported in a 16-week-old Samoyed bitch. Clinical, laboratory and gross postmortem findings followed by histological analysis of kidney, liver and cerebrum and transmission electron microscopy of renal tissue are described. The histological and ultrastructural findings are similar to those found in a line of related Samoyeds in Canada, termed Samoyed hereditary glomerulopathy. The case is, however, distinct from those documented in Canada as the condition is present in a young female and the mode of inheritance elucidated in Canada is one of X-linked dominance, with the disease only developing in its juvenile form in males.