Serpin-9 and -13 regulate hemolymph proteases during immune responses of Manduca sexta.

Serpins are a superfamily of proteins, most of which inhibit cognate serine proteases by forming inactive acyl-enzyme complexes. In the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta, serpin-1, -3 through -7 negatively regulate a hemolymph serine protease system that activates precursors of the serine protease homologs (SPHs), phenoloxidases (POs), Spätzles, and other cytokines. Here we report the cloning and characterization of M. sexta serpin-9 and -13. Serpin-9, a 402-residue protein most similar to Drosophila Spn77Ba, has R366 at the P1 position right before the cleavage site; Serpin-13, a 444-residue ortholog of Drosophila Spn28Dc, is longer than the other seven serpins and has R410 as the P1 residue. Both serpins are mainly produced in fat body and secreted into plasma to function. While their mRNA and protein levels were not up-regulated upon immune challenge, they blocked protease activities and affected proPO activation in hemolymph. Serpin-9 inhibited human neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G, trypsin, and chymotrypsin to different extents; serpin-13 reduced trypsin activity to approximately 10% at a molar ratio of 4:1 (serpin: enzyme). Serpin-9 was cleaved at Arg366 by the enzymes with different specificity, but serpin-13 had four P1 sites (Arg410 for trypsin-like proteases, Gly406 and Ala409 for the elastase and Thr404 for cathepsin G). Supplementation of induced cell-free hemolymph (IP, P for plasma) with recombinant serpin-9 did not noticeably affect proPO activation, but slightly reduced the PO activity increase after 0-50% ammonium sulfate fraction of the IP had been elicited by bacteria. In comparison, addition of recombinant serpin-13 significantly inhibited proPO activation in IP and the suppression was stronger in the fraction of IP. Serpin-9- and -13-containing protein complexes were isolated from IP using their antibodies. Hemolymph protease-1 precursor (proHP1), HP6 and HP8 were found to be associated with serpin-9, whereas proHP1, HP2 and HP6 were pulled downed with serpin-13. These results indicate that both serpins regulate immune proteases in hemolymph of M. sexta larvae.

Recognition of microbial molecular patterns and stimulation of prophenoloxidase activation by a ß-1,3-glucanase-related protein in Manduca sexta larval plasma.

Detection of pathogenic invaders is the essential first step of a successful defense response in multicellular organisms. In this study, we have identified a new member of the ß-1,3-glucanase-related protein superfamily from the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. This protein, designated microbe binding protein (MBP), is 61% identical in sequence to Bombyx mori Gram-negative bacteria binding protein, but only 34-36% identical to M. sexta ß-1,3-glucan recognition protein-1 and 2. Its mRNA levels were strongly up-regulated in hemocytes and fat body of immune challenged larvae, along with an increase in concentration of the plasma protein. We expressed M. sexta MBP in a baculovirus-insect cell system. The purified protein associated with intact bacteria and fungi. It specifically bound to lipoteichoic acid, lipopolysaccharide, diaminopimelic acid-type peptidoglycans (DAP-PGs) from Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, but less so to laminarin or Lys-type PG from Staphylococcus aureus. The complex binding pattern was influenced by other plasma factors and additional microbial surface molecules. After different amounts of MBP had been incubated with larval plasma on ice, a concentration-dependent increase in phenoloxidase (PO) activity occurred in the absence of any microbial elicitor. The activity increase was also observed in the mixture of plasma and a bacterial or fungal cell wall component. The prophenoloxidase (proPO) activation became more prominent when DAP-PGs, Micrococcus luteus Lys-PG, or lipoteichoic acid was included in the mixture of MBP and plasma. Statistic analysis suggested that a synergistic enhancement of proPO activation was caused by an interaction between MBP and these elicitors, but not S. aureus Lys-PG, lipopolysaccharide, curdlan, or laminarin. These data indicate that M. sexta MBP is a component of the surveillance mechanism and, by working together with other pattern recognition molecules and serine proteinases, triggers the proPO activation system.

Functional analysis of four processing products from multiple precursors encoded by a lebocin-related gene from Manduca sexta.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a crucial component of the natural immune system in insects. Five types of AMPs have been identified in the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta, including attacin, cecropin, moricin, gloverin, and lebocin. Here we report the isolation of lebocin-related cDNA clones and antibacterial activity of their processed protein products. The 17 cDNA sequences are composed of a constant 5' end and a variable 3' region containing 3-16 copies of an 81-nucleotide repeat. The sequence of the corresponding gene isolated from a M. sexta genomic library and Southern blotting results indicated that the gene lacks introns and exists as a single copy in the genome. The genomic sequence contained 13 complete and one partial copy of the 81-nucleotide repeat. Northern blot analysis revealed multiple transcripts with major size differences. The mRNA level of M. sexta lebocin increased substantially in fat body after larvae had been injected with bacteria. The RXXR motifs in the protein sequences led us to postulate that the precursors are processed by an intracellular convertase to form four bioactive peptides. To test this hypothesis, we chemically synthesized the peptides and examined their antibacterial activity. Peptide 1 killed Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Peptide 2, similar in sequence to a Galleria mellonella AMP, did not affect the bacterial growth. Peptide 3 was inactive but peptide 3 with an extra Arg at the carboxyl terminus was active against Escherichia coli at a high minimum inhibitory concentration. Peptide 4, encoded by the 81-bp repeat, was inactive in the antibacterial tests. The hypothesis that posttranslational processing of the precursor proteins produces multiple bioactive peptides for defense purposes was validated by identification of peptides 1, 2, and 3 from larval hemolymph via liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Comparison with the orthologs from other lepidopteran insects indicates that the same mechanism may be used to generate several functional products from a single precursor.

Solution structure, antibacterial activity, and expression profile of Manduca sexta moricin.

In response to wounding or infection, insects produce a battery of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and other defense molecules to kill the invading pathogens. To study their structures, functions, and transcriptional regulation, we synthesized Manduca sexta moricin, a 42-residue peptide (GKIPVKAIKQAGKVIGKGLRAINIAGTTHDVVSFFRPKKKKH, 4539 Da). The compound exhibited potent antimicrobial activities against a broad spectrum of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 1.4 microM. The mRNA levels of M. sexta moricin increased substantially in fat body and hemocytes after the larvae were challenged with bacterial cells. We determined the solution structure of this AMP by two-dimensional 1H-1H -nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The tertiary structure is composed of an eight-turn alpha-helix spanning almost the entire peptide. Insights of relationships between the structure and function are also presented.

Proteolytic activation of pro-spätzle is required for the induced transcription of antimicrobial peptide genes in lepidopteran insects.

Microbial infection leads to proteolytic activation of Drosophila spätzle, which binds to the toll receptor and induces the synthesis of immune proteins. To test whether or not this mechanism exists in lepidopteran insects, we cloned the cDNA of Bombyx mori spätzle-1 and overexpressed the full-length and truncated BmSpz1 cDNA in Escherichia coli. The insoluble fusion proteins were affinity-purified under denaturing condition. After the silkworm larvae were injected with renatured BmSpz1, mRNA levels of antimicrobial peptide genes greatly increased. Similar transcriptional up-regulation was also found in Manduca sexta. Injection of pro-BmSpz1 had no such effect. When pro-BmSpz1 and Micrococcus luteus were incubated with the plasma from M. sexta larvae, we detected proteolytic processing of pro-BmSpz1. These results suggest that active spätzle is required for the induced production of antimicrobial peptides in B. mori and M. sexta.