Influence of interactive effects on long-term population trajectories in multispecies reintroductions.

Reintroduced populations are typically considered to progress through establishment, growth, and regulatory phases. However, most reintroduction programs do not monitor intensively enough to test this conceptual model. We studied population indices derived from track activity of 4 threatened species (greater bilby [Macrotis lagotis], burrowing bettong [Bettongia lesueur], greater stick-nest rat [Leporillus conditor], and Shark Bay bandicoot [Perameles bougainville]) over 23 years after multiple reintroductions of each species in arid Australia. We compared population trajectories among species and investigated the effect of time and environmental variables. All species bred immediately after release, and the growth phase lasted 3-16 years, varying markedly among but not within species. The end of the growth phase was characterized by an obvious peak in population density followed by either a catastrophic decline and sustained low density (bettongs), a slow decline to extirpation after 20 years (stick-nest rat), or a slight decline followed by irregular fluctuations (bilby and bandicoot). Minor fluctuations were related to environmental variables, including 12-month cumulative rainfall and lagged summer maximum temperatures. Three of the 4 species did not reach a regulation phase, even after 23 years, possibly due to interspecific competition and trophic cascades triggered by predator removal and multispecies reintroductions. Bilbies and bandicoots exhibited a second growth phase 18 years after reintroduction, likely caused by high rainfall and increased resources following the population crash of overabundant bettongs. Our results suggest that assemblages within multispecies reintroductions demonstrate high variability in population trajectories due to interactive effects. Intensive monitoring to assess population viability may require decades, particularly where multiple species are reintroduced, release sites are confined, and the climate is unpredictable. Intensive monitoring also allows for adaptive management to prevent precipitous population declines. Practitioners should not assume reintroduced species pass through predictable postrelease population phases or that viability is assured after a certain period.

Influencia de los efectos interactivos sobre la trayectoria a largo plazo de las poblaciones en reintroducciones de múltiples especies Resumen Comúnmente se considera que las poblaciones reintroducidas progresan cuando se establecen, crecen y atraviesan fases regulatorias. Sin embargo, casi todos los programas de reintroducción no monitorean lo suficiente para evaluar este modelo conceptual. Estudiamos los índices poblacionales derivados de la actividad de rastreo de cuatro especies amenazadas (Macrotis lagotis, Bettongia lesueur, Leporillus conditor, y Perameles bougainville) más de 23 años después de varias reintroducciones de cada especie en las zonas áridas de Australia. Comparamos las trayectorias poblacionales entre especies e investigamos el efecto del tiempo y las variables ambientales. Todas las especies se reprodujeron inmediatamente después de la liberación, y la fase de crecimiento duró entre 3 y 16 años, con una variación marcada entre, pero no dentro de las especies. El final de la fase de crecimiento se caracterizó por un pico obvio en la densidad poblacional seguido de una declinación catastrófica o una baja densidad sostenida (B. lesueur), una declinación lenta ante la extirpación 20 años después (L. conditor) o una declinación leve seguida de fluctuaciones irregulares (M. lagotis y P. bougainville). Las fluctuaciones menores estuvieron relacionadas con las variables ambientales, incluyendo la precipitación acumulada de 12 meses y el retraso en las temperaturas máximas de verano. Tres de las cuatro especies no llegaron a la fase regulatoria, incluso después de 23 años, posiblemente por la competencia interespecífica y las cascadas tróficas causadas por la eliminación de depredadores y la reintroducción de varias especies. M. lagotis y P. bougainville exhibieron una segunda fase de crecimiento 18 años después de la reintroducción, probablemente causada por la precipitación elevada y el incremento de recursos después de la crisis poblacional por sobreabundancia de B. lesueur. Nuestros resultados sugieren que los conjuntos dentro de la reintroducción de múltiples especies demuestran una gran variabilidad en las trayectorias poblacionales debido a los efectos interactivos. El monitoreo intenso para evaluar la viabilidad poblacional puede llevar varias décadas, particularmente cuando se reintroducen varias especies, en donde los sitios de liberación están confinados y en donde el clima es impredecible. El monitoreo intensivo también permite que el manejo adaptativo prevenga una declinación poblacional precipitada. Quienes practican la conservación no deberían asumir que una especie reintroducida atraviesa fases predecibles después de la liberación o que la viabilidad está asegurada después de cierto periodo.

pH-Responsive Polymer Implants for the Protection of Native Mammals: Assessment of Material Properties and Poison Incorporation on Performance.

Efforts to mitigate the effects of feral cats through the management of remnant or reintroduced populations of threatened species, are often unsuccessful due to predation by control-averse feral cats, or 'problem individuals'. In order to target these animals, we have developed the Population Protecting Implant (PPI). PPIs are designed to be implanted subcutaneously in a native animal. If the animal is preyed upon, and the implant ingested by a feral cat, release of a toxic payload is triggered in the acidic stomach environment and the problem individual is eliminated. We introduce the first toxic implant incorporating the poison sodium fluoroacetate. Manufactured via fluidised-bed spray coating, toxic implants exhibited uniform reverse enteric coatings and low intra-batch variation. Toxic implants were found to exhibit favourable stability at subcutaneous pH in vitro, and rapidly release their toxic payload in vitro at gastric pH. However, limited stability was demonstrated in rats in vivo (~39-230 d), due to the use of a filament scaffold to enable coating and was likely exacerbated by metachromatic interactions caused by 1080. This work highlights that future development of the PPIs should primarily focus on removal of the filament scaffold, to afford implants with increased in vivo stability.

Ranking buffel: Comparative risk and mitigation costs of key environmental and socio-cultural threats in central Australia.

Changed fire regimes and the introduction of rabbits, cats, foxes, and large exotic herbivores have driven widespread ecological catastrophe in Australian arid and semi-arid zones, which encompass over two-thirds of the continent. These threats have caused the highest global mammal extinction rates in the last 200 years, as well as significantly undermining social, economic, and cultural practices of Aboriginal peoples of this region. However, a new and potentially more serious threat is emerging. Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) is a globally significant invader now widespread across central Australia, but the threat this ecological transformer species poses to biodiversity, ecosystem function, and culture has received relatively little attention. Our analyses suggest threats from buffel grass in arid and semi-arid areas of Australia are at least equivalent in magnitude to those posed by invasive animals and possibly higher, because unlike these more recognized threats, buffel has yet to occupy its potential distribution. Buffel infestation also increases the intensity and frequency of wildfires that affect biodiversity, cultural pursuits, and productivity. We compare the logistical and financial challenges of creating and maintaining areas free of buffel for the protection of biodiversity and cultural values, with the creation and maintenance of refuges from introduced mammals or from large-scale fire in natural habitats. The scale and expense of projected buffel management costs highlight the urgent policy, research, and financing initiatives essential to safeguard threatened species, ecosystems, and cultural values of Aboriginal people in central Australia.

Reply to Wolf et al.: Why Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) Is Not an Ethical Solution for Stray Cat Management.

We critique the recent article by Wolf et al. (2019) that claims scientific merit for reducing the number of stray cats in Australia through Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) programs, and then we provide an inventory of biological, welfare, and economic reasons why TNR is less successful than adoption and euthanasia for managing unowned cats. Like Crawford et al. (2019) and multiple other comprehensive and unbiased Australian and international scientific reviews, we refute the idea that returning neutered unowned cats to stray populations has any valid role in responsible, ethical, affordable, and effective cat management, or in wildlife conservation. The main purported objective of TNR proponents along with animal welfare, human health, and wildlife advocacy stakeholders is to reduce the number of unhomed cats. We contend that cessation of provisioning unowned cats with food is the most effective approach to achieve this objective. We also present evidence from the Brisbane City Council that informed cat management policy, advocacy, and laws, backed up by responsible rehoming or prompt ethical euthanasia, are together effective at reducing the stray cat problem.

Exploring the internal and external wildlife gradients created by conservation fences.

Spillover effects are an expansion of conservation benefits beyond protected areas through dispersal of species that reside within. They have been well documented in marine but not terrestrial systems. To understand the effects on wildlife created by conservation fences, we explored the internal and external gradients of activity in mammal, reptile, and bird species at a conservation reserve in arid Australia that is fenced to exclude invasive rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), cats (Felis catus), and foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Two methods were used: counts of animal tracks along transects on sand dunes and captures at pitfall-trapping sites. In both cases, sites were spaced at different distances from the reserve fenceline inside and outside the reserve. We recorded a range of spillover, source-sink, step, and barrier effects that combined to create a zone within and around the reserve with fence-induced species-specific wildlife gradients. Two endemic rodents but none of the 4 mammal species reintroduced to the reserve showed positive spillover effects. Barrier effects, where activity was highest close to the fence, were recorded for the feral cat and native bettong (Bettongia lesueur), species that could not breach the fence. In comparison, some reptiles and native mammal species that could permeate the fence displayed source-sink effects; that is, their activity levels were reduced close to the fence likely due to constant emigration to the side with lower density. Activity of some reptiles was lowest at sites inside the reserve and gradually increased at outside sites with distance from the fence, a gradient likely related to trophic cascades triggered by predator exclusion. Our result shows that fenced reserves can create overlapping layers of species-specific gradients related to each species' ability to permeate the fence and its varying susceptibility to threats. Managers should be aware that these gradients may extend for several kilometers either side of the fence and that not all contained species will increase in abundance. Creating wider conservation benefits may require increased fence permeability and threat reduction outside the fence.

Exploración de los gradientes de vida silvestre internos y externos creados por las vallas de conservación. Resumen Los efectos de derrame son una expansión de los beneficios de conservación más allá de las áreas protegidas a través de la dispersión de especies que residen en su interior. Han sido bien documentados en sistemas marinos, pero no terrestres. Para entender los efectos de las vallas de exclusión sobre la vida silvestre, exploramos los gradientes internos y externos de la actividad de especies de mamíferos, reptiles y aves en una reserva de conservación en la región árida de Australia que está cercada para excluir conejos invasivos (Oryctolagus cuniculus), gatos (Felis catus) y zorros (Vulpes vulpes). Se utilizaron dos métodos: conteo de huellas de animales a lo largo de transectos en dunas de arena y captura con trampas pitfall. En ambos casos, los sitios fueron espaciados a distintas distancias dentro y fuera de la valla de la reserva. Registramos una gama de efectos de derrame, fuente-sumidero, escalón y barrera que se combinaron para crear una zona dentro y alrededor de la reserva con gradientes de vida silvestre inducidos por la valla. Dos roedores endémicos, pero ninguna de 4 especies de mamíferos reintroducidas a la reserva, mostraron efectos de derrame positivos. Los efectos de barrera, donde la actividad era mayor cerca de la valla, fueron registrados para el gato feral y la rata canguro nativa (Bettongia lesueur), especies que no pudieron franquear la valla. En contraste, algunas especies de reptiles y mamíferos nativos que pudieron permear la valla mostraron efectos de fuente-sumidero; esto es, sus niveles de actividad fueron bajos cerca de la valla probablemente debido a la emigración constante hacia el lado con menor densidad. La actividad de algunos reptiles fue menor en los sitios núcleo de la reserva e incrementaron a medida que incrementó la distancia hacia afuera, un gradiente relacionado probablemente con las cascadas tróficas desencadenadas por la exclusión de depredadores. Nuestros resultados muestran que las reservas cercadas pueden crear capas sobrepuestas de gradientes específicos relacionados con la habilidad de cada especie para permear la valla y su susceptibilidad a las amenazas. Los manejadores deber ser conscientes de que esos gradientes pueden extenderse varios kilómetros a ambos lados de la valla y que no todas las especies contenidas aumentarán en abundancia. La creación de beneficios de conservación más amplios puede requerir una mayor permeabilidad de la vallas y la reducción de amenazas fuera de la reserva.

Rabbit biocontrol and landscape-scale recovery of threatened desert mammals.

Funding for species conservation is insufficient to meet the current challenges facing global biodiversity, yet many programs use expensive single-species recovery actions and neglect broader management that addresses threatening processes. Arid Australia has the world's worst modern mammalian extinction record, largely attributable to competition from introduced herbivores, particularly European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and predation by feral cats (Felis catus) and foxes (Vulpes vulpes). The biological control agent rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) was introduced to Australia in 1995 and resulted in dramatic, widespread rabbit suppression. We compared the area of occupancy and extent of occurrence of 4 extant species of small mammals before and after RHDV outbreak, relative to rainfall, sampling effort, and rabbit and predator populations. Despite low rainfall during the first 14 years after RHDV, 2 native rodents listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the dusky hopping-mouse (Notomys fuscus) and plains mouse (Pseudomys australis), increased their extent of occurrence by 241-365%. A threatened marsupial micropredator, the crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda), underwent a 70-fold increase in extent of occurrence and a 20-fold increase in area of occupancy. Both bottom-up and top-down trophic effects were attributed to RHDV, namely decreased competition for food resources and declines in rabbit-dependent predators. Based on these sustained increases, these 3 previously threatened species now qualify for threat-category downgrading on the IUCN Red List. These recoveries are on a scale rarely documented in mammals and give impetus to programs aimed at targeted use of RHDV in Australia, rather than simply employing top-down threat-based management of arid ecosystems. Conservation programs that take big-picture approaches to addressing threatening processes over large spatial scales should be prioritized to maximize return from scarce conservation funding. Further, these should be coupled with long-term ecological monitoring, a critical tool in detecting and understanding complex ecosystem change.

'Biohyets': a method for displaying the extent and severity of environmental impacts.

Bioindicators are often more sensitive indicators of both biodiversity and environmental change than abiotic pollution parameters. The responses of selected plants and animals to anthropogenic insults can be used to assess environmental responses at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. This study maps the response of key reptile, mammal, bird and plant species to airborne contaminants around a large mine and mineral processing operation at Olympic Dam in arid Australia. The responses of different bioindicators should ideally be integrated in order to comprehend overall trends in biological integrity adjacent to pollution sources. Assimilation of different bioindicator responses allows greater precision and geographic coverage of the monitored region and reduces potential distortion from unrelated biological or monitoring responses of individual indicator groups. A single, integrated measure of ecosystem health that overlays the responses of otherwise incompatible datasets, is also of more value to industrial operators and environmental regulators than several disparate responses. Biohyets, which are the contours of bioindicator index values derived from multiple biotic measurements, are here used to map variability in ecosystem health and to identify regions, response variables and disturbance parameters for more rigorous analysis.