Phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitor mirodenafil ameliorates Alzheimer-like pathology and symptoms by multimodal actions.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology is associated with complex interactions among multiple factors, involving an intertwined network of various signaling pathways. The polypharmacological approach is an emerging therapeutic strategy that has been proposed to overcome the multifactorial nature of AD by targeting multiple pathophysiological factors including amyloid-ß (Aß) and phosphorylated tau. We evaluated a blood-brain barrier penetrating phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitor, mirodenafil (5-ethyl-2-7-n-propyl-3,5-dihydrro-4H-pyrrolo[3,2-d]pyrimidin-4-one), for its therapeutic effects on AD with polypharmacological properties. METHODS: To evaluate the potential of mirodenafil as a disease-modifying AD agent, mirodenafil was administered to test its effects on the cognitive behaviors of the APP-C105 AD mouse model using the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. To investigate the mechanisms of action that underlie the beneficial disease-modifying effects of mirodenafil, human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and mouse hippocampal HT-22 cells were used to show mirodenafil-induced alterations associated with the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)/cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG)/cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) pathway, apoptotic cell death, tau phosphorylation, amyloidogenesis, the autophagy-lysosome pathway, glucocorticoid receptor (GR) transcriptional activity, and the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. RESULTS: Here, mirodenafil is demonstrated to improve cognitive behavior in the APP-C105 mouse model. Mirodenafil not only reduced the Aß and phosphorylated tau burdens in vivo, but also ameliorated AD pathology induced by Aß through the modulation of the cGMP/PKG/CREB signaling pathway, glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK-3ß) activity, GR transcriptional activity, and the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in neuronal cells. Interestingly, homodimerization and nuclear localization of GR were inhibited by mirodenafil, but not by other PDE5 inhibitors. In addition, only mirodenafil reduced the expression levels of the Wnt antagonist Dickkopf-1 (Dkk-1), thus activating the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. CONCLUSIONS: These findings strongly suggest that the PDE5 inhibitor mirodenafil shows promise as a potential polypharmacological drug candidate for AD treatment, acting on multiple key signaling pathways involved in amyloid deposition, phosphorylated tau burden, the cGMP/PKG/CREB pathway, GSK-3ß kinase activity, GR signaling, and the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. Mirodenafil administration to the APP-C105 AD mouse model also improved cognitive behavior, demonstrating the potential of mirodenafil as a polypharmacological AD therapeutic agent.

Proteomic analysis of human synovial fluid reveals potential diagnostic biomarkers for ankylosing spondylitis.

BACKGROUND: Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory rheumatic disease affecting the axial skeleton and peripheral joints. The etiology of this disease remains poorly understood, but interactions between genetic and environmental factors have been implicated. The present study identified differentially expressed proteins in the synovial fluid (SF) of AS patients to elucidate the underlying cause of AS. METHODS: A cohort of 40 SF samples from 10 AS and 10 each of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), gout, and osteoarthritis (OA) patients were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to identify differentially expressed proteins specific to AS. The label-free LC-MS/MS results were verified by western blotting. RESULTS: We identified 8 proteins that were > 1.5-fold upregulated in the SF of AS patients compared to that of the disease control groups, including HP, MMP1, MMP3, serum amyloid P-component (APCS), complement factor H-related protein 5 (CFHR5), mannose-binding lectin 2 (MBL2), complement component C9 (C9), and complement C4-A (C4A). CFHR5 and C9 were previously found in serum from AS patients, while APCS was previously found in SF as well as in serum. However, the present study has identified C4A, and MBL2 as potential AS biomarkers for the first time. The expression levels of MMP3, C9, and CFHR5 were verified in AS SF using western blotting. CONCLUSION: We performed quantitative comparative proteomic analysis using by LC-MS/MS of the SF from four disease states: RA, gout, and OA. This systematic comparison revealed novel differentially expressed proteins in AS SF, as well as two previously reported candidate biomarkers. We further verified the expression of MMP3, C9 and CFHR5 by western blot. These proteins may serve as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers in patients with AS, and may thus improve the clinical outcomes of this serious disease.

BATF regulates collagen-induced arthritis by regulating T helper cell differentiation.

BACKGROUND: We recently demonstrated that BATF, a member of the activator protein-1 (AP-1) family, regulates osteoarthritic cartilage destruction. Here, we explored the roles and regulatory mechanisms of BATF in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in mice. METHODS: CIA and K/BxN serum transfer were used to generate inflammatory arthritis models in wild-type (WT) and Batf-/- mice. RA manifestations were determined by examining CIA incidence, clinical score, synovitis, synovial hyperplasia, angiogenesis in inflamed synovium, pannus formation, bone erosion, and cartilage destruction. Immune features in RA were analyzed by examining immune cell populations and cytokine production. RESULTS: BATF was upregulated in the synovial tissues of joints in which inflammatory arthritis had been caused by CIA or K/BxN serum transfer. The increases in CIA incidence, clinical score, and autoantibody production in CIA-induced WT mice were completely abrogated in the corresponding Batf-/- DBA/1 J mice. Genetic ablation of Batf also inhibited CIA-induced synovitis, synovial hyperplasia, angiogenesis in synovial tissues, pannus formation, bone erosion, and cartilage destruction. Batf knockout inhibited the differentiation of T helper (Th)17 cells and the conversion of CD4+Foxp3+ cells to CD4+IL-17+ cells. However, BATF did not modulate the functions of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), including the expressions of chemokines, matrix-degrading enzymes, vascular endothelial growth factor, and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that BATF crucially mediates CIA by regulating Th cell differentiation without directly affecting the functions of FLS.

Estrogen-related receptor γ causes osteoarthritis by upregulating extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes.

The estrogen-related receptor (ERR) family of orphan nuclear receptor is composed of ERRα, ERRß, and ERRγ, which are known to regulate various isoform-specific functions under normal and pathophysiological conditions. Here, we investigate the involvement of ERRs in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) in mice. Among ERR family members, ERRγ is markedly upregulated in cartilage from human OA patients and various mouse models of OA. Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of ERRγ in mouse knee joint or transgenic expression of ERRγ in cartilage leads to OA. ERRγ overexpression in chondrocytes directly upregulates matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP13, which are known to play crucial roles in cartilage destruction in OA. In contrast, genetic ablation of Esrrg or shRNA-mediated downregulation of Esrrg in joint tissues abrogates experimental OA in mice. Our results collectively indicate that ERRγ is a novel catabolic regulator of OA pathogenesis.

Inhibition of BATF/JUN transcriptional activity protects against osteoarthritic cartilage destruction.

OBJECTIVE: The basic leucine zipper transcription factor, ATF-like (BATF), a member of the Activator protein-1 family, promotes transcriptional activation or repression, depending on the interacting partners (JUN-B or C-JUN). Here, we investigated whether the BATF/JUN complex exerts regulatory effects on catabolic and anabolic gene expression in chondrocytes and contributes to the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA). METHODS: Primary cultured mouse chondrocytes were treated with proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1ß, IL-6 or tumour necrosis factor-α) or infected with adenoviruses carrying the Batf gene (Ad-Batf). Expression of BATF and JUN was examined in human and mouse experimental OA cartilage samples. Experimental OA in mice was induced by destabilisation of the medial meniscus or intra-articular injection of Ad-Batf. The chromatin immunoprecipitation assay was used to examine the binding of BATF and JUN to the promoter regions of candidate genes. RESULTS: Overexpression of BATF, which forms a heterodimeric complex with JUN-B and C-JUN, induced upregulation of matrix-degrading enzymes and downregulation of cartilage matrix molecules in chondrocytes. BATF expression in mouse joint tissues promoted OA cartilage destruction, and conversely, knockout of Batf in mice suppressed experimental OA. Pharmacological inhibition of BATF/JUN transcriptional activity reduced the expression of matrix-degrading enzymes and protected against experimental OA in mice. CONCLUSIONS: BATF/JUN-B and BATF/C-JUN complexes play important roles in OA cartilage destruction through regulating anabolic and catabolic gene expression in chondrocytes. Our findings collectively support the utility of BATF as a therapeutic target for OA.

Regulation of the catabolic cascade in osteoarthritis by the zinc-ZIP8-MTF1 axis.

Osteoarthritis (OA), primarily characterized by cartilage degeneration, is caused by an imbalance between anabolic and catabolic factors. Here, we investigated the role of zinc (Zn2+) homeostasis, Zn2+ transporters, and Zn(2+)-dependent transcription factors in OA pathogenesis. Among Zn2+ transporters, the Zn2+ importer ZIP8 was specifically upregulated in OA cartilage of humans and mice, resulting in increased levels of intracellular Zn2+ in chondrocytes. ZIP8-mediated Zn2+ influx upregulated the expression of matrix-degrading enzymes (MMP3, MMP9, MMP12, MMP13, and ADAMTS5) in chondrocytes. Ectopic expression of ZIP8 in mouse cartilage tissue caused OA cartilage destruction, whereas Zip8 knockout suppressed surgically induced OA pathogenesis, with concomitant modulation of Zn2+ influx and matrix-degrading enzymes. Furthermore, MTF1 was identified as an essential transcription factor in mediating Zn2+/ZIP8-induced catabolic factor expression, and genetic modulation of Mtf1 in mice altered OA pathogenesis. We propose that the zinc-ZIP8-MTF1 axis is an essential catabolic regulator of OA pathogenesis.

α-Catenin inhibits ß-catenin-T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancing factor transcriptional activity and collagen type II expression in articular chondrocytes through formation of Gli3R.α-catenin.ß-catenin ternary complex.

Chondrocytes, a unique cell type in cartilage tissue, are responsible for the regulation of anabolic and catabolic homeostasis in cartilage-specific extracellular matrix synthesis. Activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling induces dedifferentiation of articular chondrocytes, resulting in suppression of type II collagen expression. We have shown previously that α-catenin inhibits ß-catenin-Tcf/Lef (T-cell factor/lymphoid-enhancing factor) transcriptional activity in articular chondrocytes with a concomitant recovery of type II collagen expression. In the current study, we elucidated the mechanism underlying this inhibition of ß-catenin-Tcf/Lef transcriptional activity by α-catenin, showing that it requires direct interaction between α-catenin and ß-catenin. We further showed that it involves recruitment of Gli3R, the short transcription-repressing form of the transcription factor Gli3, to ß-catenin by α-catenin. The resulting inhibition of ß-catenin transcriptional activity leads to increased expression of type II collagen. Gli3R and α-catenin actions are co-dependent: both are necessary for the observed inhibitory effects on ß-catenin transcriptional activity. Reducing Gli3R expression levels through activation of Indian Hedgehog (Ihh) signaling also is sufficient to activate ß-catenin transcriptional activity, suggesting that the ternary complex, Gli3R·α-catenin·ß-catenin, mediates Ihh-dependent activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in articular chondrocytes. Collectively, this study shows that α-catenin functions as a nuclear factor that recruits the transcriptional repressor Gli3R to ß-catenin to inhibit ß-catenin transcriptional activity and dedifferentiation of articular chondrocytes. Finally, osteoarthritic cartilage showed elevated levels of ß-catenin and decreased levels of α-catenin and Gli3R, suggesting that decreased levels of α-catenin and Gli3R levels contribute to increased ß-catenin transcriptional activity during osteoarthritic cartilage destruction.

Cytokine-like 1 knock-out mice (Cytl1-/-) show normal cartilage and bone development but exhibit augmented osteoarthritic cartilage destruction.

We have shown that cytokine-like 1 (Cytl1) is a novel autocrine regulatory factor that regulates chondrogenesis of mouse mesenchymal cells (Kim, J. S., Ryoo, Z. Y., and Chun, J. S. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 29359-29367). In this previous work, we found that Cytl1 expression was very low in mesenchymal cells, increased dramatically during chondrogenesis, and decreased during hypertrophic maturation, both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, exogenous addition or ectopic expression of Cytl1 caused chondrogenic differentiation of mouse limb bud mesenchymal cells. In the current study, we generated a Cytl1 knock-out (Cytl1(-/-)) mouse to investigate the in vivo role of Cytl1. Deletion of the Cytl1 gene did not affect chondrogenesis or cartilage development. Cytl1(-/-) mice also showed normal endochondral ossification and long bone development. Additionally, ultrastructural features of articular cartilage, such as matrix organization and chondrocyte morphology, were similar in wild-type and Cytl1(-/-) mice. However, Cytl1(-/-) mice were more sensitive to osteoarthritic (OA) cartilage destruction. Compared with wild-type littermates, Cytl1(-/-) mice showed more severe OA cartilage destruction upon destabilization of the medial meniscus of mouse knee joints. In addition, expression levels of Cytl1 were markedly decreased in OA cartilage of humans and experimental mice. Taken together, our results suggest that, rather than regulating cartilage and bone development, Cytl1 is required for the maintenance of cartilage homeostasis, and loss of Cytl1 function is associated with experimental OA cartilage destruction in mice.

Interleukin-6 plays an essential role in hypoxia-inducible factor 2α-induced experimental osteoarthritic cartilage destruction in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Hypoxia-inducible factor 2α (HIF-2α) (encoded by Epas1) causes osteoarthritic (OA) cartilage destruction by regulating the expression of catabolic factor genes. We undertook this study to explore the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in HIF-2α-mediated OA cartilage destruction in mice. METHODS: The expression of HIF-2α, IL-6, and catabolic factors was determined at the messenger RNA and protein levels in primary culture mouse chondrocytes, human OA cartilage, and mouse experimental OA cartilage. Experimental OA in wild-type, HIF-2α-knockdown (Epas1+/-), and Il6-/- mice was caused by intraarticular injection of Epas1 adenovirus or destabilization of the medial meniscus. The role of IL-6 was determined by treating with recombinant IL-6 protein or by injecting HIF-2α adenovirus (AdEpas1) intraarticularly in mice with or without IL-6-neutralizing antibody. RESULTS: We found that Il6 is a direct target gene of HIF-2α in articular chondrocytes. Both Epas1 and Il6 were up-regulated in human and mouse OA cartilage, whereas HIF-2α knockdown in mice led to inhibition of both Il6 expression and cartilage destruction. Treatment with IL-6 enhanced Mmp3 and Mmp13 expression; conversely, Il6 knockdown inhibited HIF-2α-induced up-regulation of Mmp3 and Mmp13. Injection of IL-6 protein into mouse knee joints triggered OA cartilage destruction, whereas IL-6 neutralization led to blocking of HIF-2α-induced cartilage destruction with concomitant modulation of Mmp3 and Mmp13 expression. Moreover, Il6 knockout resulted in inhibition of AdEpas1-induced and destabilization of the medial meniscus-induced cartilage destruction as well as inhibition of Mmp3 and Mmp13 expression. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that IL-6 acts as a crucial mediator of HIF-2α-induced experimental OA cartilage destruction in mice via regulation of Mmp3 and Mmp13 levels.

Cables links Robo-bound Abl kinase to N-cadherin-bound beta-catenin to mediate Slit-induced modulation of adhesion and transcription.

Binding of the secreted axon guidance cue Slit to its Robo receptor results in inactivation of the neural, calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule N-cadherin, providing a rapid epigenetic mechanism for integrating guidance and adhesion information. This requires the formation of a multimolecular complex containing Robo, Abl tyrosine kinase and N-cadherin. Here we show that on binding of Slit to Robo, the adaptor protein Cables is recruited to Robo-associated Abl and forms a multimeric complex by binding directly to N-cadherin-associated beta-catenin. Complex formation results in Abl-mediated phosphorylation of beta-catenin on tyrosine 489, leading to a decrease in its affinity for N-cadherin, loss of N-cadherin function, and targeting of phospho-Y489-beta-catenin to the nucleus. Nuclear beta-catenin combines with the transcription factor Tcf/Lef and activates transcription. Thus, Slit-induced formation of the Robo-N-cadherin complex results in a rapid loss of cadherin-mediated adhesion and has more lasting effects on gene transcription.

Activation of the repulsive receptor Roundabout inhibits N-cadherin-mediated cell adhesion.

The formation of axon trajectories requires integration of local adhesive interactions with directional information from attractive and repulsive cues. Here, we show that these two types of information are functionally integrated; activation of the transmembrane receptor Roundabout (Robo) by its ligand, the secreted repulsive guidance cue Slit, inactivates N-cadherin-mediated adhesion. Loss of N-cadherin-mediated adhesion is accompanied by tyrosine phosphorylation of beta-catenin and its loss from the N-cadherin complex, concomitant with the formation of a supramolecular complex containing Robo, Abelson (Abl) kinase and N-cadherin. Local formation of such a receptor complex is an ideal mechanism to steer the growth cone while still allowing adhesion and growth in other directions.