Dynamic and stationary monitoring of air pollutant exposures and dose during marathons.

Marathon running significantly increases breathing volumes and, consequently, air pollution inhalation doses. This is of special concern for elite athletes who ventilate at very high rates. However, race organizers and sport governing bodies have little guidance to support events scheduling to protect runners. A key limitation is the lack of hyper-local, high temporal resolution air quality data representative of exposure along the racecourse. This work aimed to understand the air pollution exposures and dose inhaled by athletes, by means of a dynamic monitoring methodology designed for road races. Air quality monitors were deployed during three marathons, monitoring nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), particulate matter (PMx), air temperature, and relative humidity. One fixed monitor was installed at the Start/Finish line and one mobile monitor followed the women elite runner pack. The data from the fixed monitors, deployed prior the race, described daily air pollution trends. Mobile monitors in combination with heatmap analysis facilitated the hyper-local characterization of athletes' exposures and helped identify local hotspots (e.g., areas prone to PM resuspension) which should be preferably bypassed. The estimation of inhaled doses disaggregated by gender and ventilation showed that doses inhaled by last finishers may be equal or higher than those inhaled by first finishers for O3 and PMx, due to longer exposures as well as the increase of these pollutants over time (e.g., 58.2 ± 9.6 and 72.1 ± 23.7 µg of PM2.5 for first and last man during Rome marathon). Similarly, men received significantly higher doses than women due to their higher ventilation rate, with differences of 31-114 µg for NO2, 79-232 µg for O3, and 6-41 µg for PMx. Finally, the aggregated data obtained during the 4 week- period prior the marathon can support better race scheduling by the organizers and provide actionable information to mitigate air pollution impacts on athletes' health and performance.

The effects of exposure to road traffic noise at school on central auditory pathway functional connectivity.

As the world becomes more urbanized, more people become exposed to traffic and the risks associated with a higher exposure to road traffic noise increase. Excessive exposure to environmental noise could potentially interfere with functional maturation of the auditory brain in developing individuals. The aim of the present study was to assess the association between exposure to annual average road traffic noise (LAeq) in schools and functional connectivity of key elements of the central auditory pathway in schoolchildren. A total of 229 children from 34 representative schools in the city of Barcelona with ages between 8 and 12 years (49.2% girls) were evaluated. LAeq was obtained as the mean of 2-consecutive day measurements inside classrooms before lessons started following standard procedures to obtain an indicator of long-term road traffic noise levels. A region-of-interest functional connectivity Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) approach was adopted. Functional connectivity maps were generated for the inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body of the thalamus and primary auditory cortex as key levels of the central auditory pathway. Road traffic noise in schools was significantly associated with stronger connectivity between the inferior colliculus and a bilateral thalamic region adjacent to the medial geniculate body, and with stronger connectivity between the medial geniculate body and a bilateral brainstem region adjacent to the inferior colliculus. Such a functional connectivity strengthening effect did not extend to the cerebral cortex. The anatomy of the association implicating subcortical relays suggests that prolonged road traffic noise exposure in developing individuals may accelerate maturation in the basic elements of the auditory pathway. Future research is warranted to establish whether such a faster maturation in early pathway levels may ultimately reduce the developing potential in the whole auditory system.

Exposure to road traffic noise and cognitive development in schoolchildren in Barcelona, Spain: A population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Road traffic noise is a prevalent and known health hazard. However, little is known yet about its effect on children's cognition. We aimed to study the association between exposure to road traffic noise and the development of working memory and attention in primary school children, considering school-outdoor and school-indoor annual average noise levels and noise fluctuation characteristics, as well as home-outdoor noise exposure. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We followed up a population-based sample of 2,680 children aged 7 to 10 years from 38 schools in Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) between January 2012 to March 2013. Children underwent computerised cognitive tests 4 times (n = 10,112), for working memory (2-back task, detectability), complex working memory (3-back task, detectability), and inattentiveness (Attention Network Task, hit reaction time standard error, in milliseconds). Road traffic noise was measured indoors and outdoors at schools, at the start of the school year, using standard protocols to obtain A-weighted equivalent sound pressure levels, i.e., annual average levels scaled to human hearing, for the daytime (daytime LAeq, in dB). We also derived fluctuation indicators out of the measurements (noise intermittency ratio, %; and number of noise events) and obtained individual estimated indoor noise levels (LAeq) correcting for classroom orientation and classroom change between years. Home-outdoor noise exposure at home (Lden, i.e., EU indicator for the 24-hour annual average levels) was estimated using Barcelona's noise map for year 2012, according to the European Noise Directive (2002). We used linear mixed models to evaluate the association between exposure to noise and cognitive development adjusting for age, sex, maternal education, socioeconomical vulnerability index at home, indoor or outdoor traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) for corresponding school models or outdoor nitrogen dioxide (NO2) for home models. Child and school were included as nested random effects. The median age (percentile 25, percentile 75) of children in visit 1 was 8.5 (7.8; 9.3) years, 49.9% were girls, and 50% of the schools were public. School-outdoor exposure to road traffic noise was associated with a slower development in working memory (2-back and 3-back) and greater inattentiveness over 1 year in children, both for the average noise level (e.g., ‒4.83 points [95% CI: ‒7.21, ‒2.45], p-value < 0.001, in 2-back detectability per 5 dB in street levels) and noise fluctuation (e.g., ‒4.38 [‒7.08, ‒1.67], p-value = 0.002, per 50 noise events at street level). Individual exposure to the road traffic average noise level in classrooms was only associated with inattentiveness (2.49 ms [0, 4.81], p-value = 0.050, per 5 dB), whereas indoor noise fluctuation was consistently associated with all outcomes. Home-outdoor noise exposure was not associated with the outcomes. Study limitations include a potential lack of generalizability (58% of mothers with university degree in our study versus 50% in the region) and the lack of past noise exposure assessment. CONCLUSIONS: We observed that exposure to road traffic noise at school, but not at home, was associated with slower development of working memory, complex working memory, and attention in schoolchildren over 1 year. Associations with noise fluctuation indicators were more evident than with average noise levels in classrooms.

Infection induced SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and heterogeneity of antibody responses in a general population cohort study in Catalonia Spain.

Sparse data exist on the complex natural immunity to SARS-CoV-2 at the population level. We applied a well-validated multiplex serology test in 5000 participants of a general population study in Catalonia in blood samples collected from end June to mid November 2020. Based on responses to fifteen isotype-antigen combinations, we detected a seroprevalence of 18.1% in adults (n = 4740), and modeled extrapolation to the general population of Catalonia indicated a 15.3% seroprevalence. Antibodies persisted up to 9 months after infection. Immune profiling of infected individuals revealed that with increasing severity of infection (asymptomatic, 1-3 symptoms, ≥ 4 symptoms, admitted to hospital/ICU), seroresponses were more robust and rich with a shift towards IgG over IgA and anti-spike over anti-nucleocapsid responses. Among seropositive participants, lower antibody levels were observed for those ≥ 60 years vs < 60 years old and smokers vs non-smokers. Overweight/obese participants vs normal weight had higher antibody levels. Adolescents (13-15 years old) (n = 260) showed a seroprevalence of 11.5%, were less likely to be tested seropositive compared to their parents and had dominant anti-spike rather than anti-nucleocapsid IgG responses. Our study provides an unbiased estimate of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in Catalonia and new evidence on the durability and heterogeneity of post-infection immunity.

Evaluating size-fractioned indoor particulate matter in an urban hospital in Iran.

Hospitals host vulnerable people with potentially enhanced sensitivity to air pollutants. We measured particulate matter (PM) including PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 with a portable device in a hospital, a nearby reference building, and ambient air in Shiraz, Iran. Indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratio values were calculated to infer on the origin of size-fractioned PM. The mean hospital indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 (4.7 and 38.7 µg/m3, respectively) but not PM1 were higher than in the reference building and lower than in ambient air. The highest hospital PM10 mean concentrations were found in the radiotherapy ward (77.5 µg/m3) and radiology ward (70.4 µg/m3) while the lowest were found in the bone marrow transplantation (BMT) ward (18.5 µg/m3) and cardiac surgery ward (19.8 µg/m3). The highest PM2.5 concentrations were found in the radiology (8.7 µg/m3) and orthopaedic wards (7.7 µg/m3) while the lowest were found in the BMT ward (2.8 µg/m3) and cardiac surgery ward (2.8 µg/m3). The I/O ratios and the timing of peak concentrations during the day (7 a.m. to 4 p.m.) indicated the main roles of outdoor air and human activity on the indoor levels. These suggest the need for mechanical ventilation with PM control for a better indoor air quality (IAQ) in the hospital.

Associations between sources of particle number and mortality in four European cities.

BACKGROUND: The evidence on the association between ultrafine (UFP) particles and mortality is still inconsistent. Moreover, health effects of specific UFP sources have not been explored. We assessed the impact of UFP sources on daily mortality in Barcelona, Helsinki, London, and Zurich. METHODS: UFP sources were previously identified and quantified for the four cities: daily contributions of photonucleation, two traffic sources (fresh traffic and urban, with size mode around 30 nm and 70 nm, respectively), and secondary aerosols were obtained from data from an urban background station. Different periods were investigated in each city: Barcelona 2013-2016, Helsinki 2009-2016, London 2010-2016, and Zurich 2011-2014. The associations between total particle number concentrations (PNC) and UFP sources and daily (natural, cardiovascular [CVD], and respiratory) mortality were investigated using city-specific generalized linear models (GLM) with quasi-Poisson regression. RESULTS: We found inconsistent results across cities, sources, and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality. Increased risk was observed for total PNC and natural mortality in Helsinki (lag 2; 1.3% [0.07%, 2.5%]), CVD mortality in Barcelona (lag 1; 3.7% [0.17%, 7.4%]) and Zurich (lag 0; 3.8% [0.31%, 7.4%]), and respiratory mortality in London (lag 3; 2.6% [0.84%, 4.45%]) and Zurich (lag 1; 9.4% [1.0%, 17.9%]). A similar pattern of associations between health outcomes and total PNC was followed by the fresh traffic source, for which we also found the same associations and lags as for total PNC. The urban source (mostly aged traffic) was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1; 12.5% [1.7%, 24.2%]) and London (lag 3; 2.4% [0.90%, 4.0%]) while the secondary source was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1: 12.0% [0.63%, 24.5%]) and Helsinki (4.7% [0.11%, 9.5%]). Reduced risk for the photonucleation source was observed for respiratory mortality in Barcelona (lag 2, -8.6% [-14.5%, -2.4%]) and for CVD mortality in Helsinki, as this source is present only in clean atmospheres (lag 1, -1.48 [-2.75, -0.21]). CONCLUSIONS: We found inconsistent results across cities, sources and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality.

Organic Air Quality Markers of Indoor and Outdoor PM2.5 Aerosols in Primary Schools from Barcelona.

Airborne particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 2.5 µg, PM2.5 was regularly sampled in classrooms (indoor) and playgrounds (outdoor) of primary schools from Barcelona. Three of these schools were located downtown and three in the periphery, representing areas with high and low traffic intensities. These aerosols were analyzed for organic molecular tracers and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to identify the main sources of these airborne particles and evaluate the air quality in the urban location of the schools. Traffic emissions were the main contributors of PAHs to the atmospheres in all schools, with higher average concentrations in those located downtown (1800-2700 pg/m3) than in the periphery (760-1000 pg/m3). The similarity of the indoor and outdoor concentrations of the PAH is consistent with a transfer of outdoor traffic emissions to the indoor classrooms. This observation was supported by the hopane and elemental carbon concentrations in PM2.5, markers of motorized vehicles, that were correlated with PAHs. The concentrations of food-related markers, such as glucoses, sucrose, malic, azelaic and fatty acids, were correlated and were higher in the indoor atmospheres. These compounds were also correlated with plastic additives, such as phthalic acid and diisobutyl, dibutyl and dicyclohexyl phthalates. Clothing constituents, e.g., adipic acid, and fragrances, galaxolide and methyl dihydrojasmonate were also correlated with these indoor air compounds. All these organic tracers were correlated with the organic carbon of PM2.5, which was present in higher concentrations in the indoor than in the outdoor atmospheres.

Source apportionment of particle number size distribution in urban background and traffic stations in four European cities.

Ultrafine particles (UFP) are suspected of having significant impacts on health. However, there have only been a limited number of studies on sources of UFP compared to larger particles. In this work, we identified and quantified the sources and processes contributing to particle number size distributions (PNSD) using Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) at six monitoring stations (four urban background and two street canyon) from four European cities: Barcelona, Helsinki, London, and Zurich. These cities are characterised by different meteorological conditions and emissions. The common sources across all stations were Photonucleation, traffic emissions (3 sources, from fresh to aged emissions: Traffic nucleation, Fresh traffic - mode diameter between 13 and 37 nm, and Urban - mode diameter between 44 and 81 nm, mainly traffic but influenced by other sources in some cities), and Secondary particles. The Photonucleation factor was only directly identified by PMF for Barcelona, while an additional split of the Nucleation factor (into Photonucleation and Traffic nucleation) by using NOx concentrations as a proxy for traffic emissions was performed for all other stations. The sum of all traffic sources resulted in a maximum relative contributions ranging from 71 to 94% (annual average) thereby being the main contributor at all stations. In London and Zurich, the relative contribution of the sources did not vary significantly between seasons. In contrast, the high levels of solar radiation in Barcelona led to an important contribution of Photonucleation particles (ranging from 14% during the winter period to 35% during summer). Biogenic emissions were a source identified only in Helsinki (both in the urban background and street canyon stations), that contributed importantly during summer (23% in urban background). Airport emissions contributed to Nucleation particles at urban background sites, as the highest concentrations of this source took place when the wind was blowing from the airport direction in all cities.

Effects of prenatal exposure to particulate matter air pollution on corpus callosum and behavioral problems in children.

OBJECTIVE: Air pollution (AP) may affect neurodevelopment, but studies about the effects of AP on the growing human brain are still scarce. We aimed to investigate the effects of prenatal exposure to AP on lateral ventricles (LV) and corpus callosum (CC) volumes in children and to determine whether the induced brain changes are associated with behavioral problems. METHODS: Among the children recruited through a set of representative schools of the city of Barcelona, (Spain) in the Brain Development and Air Pollution Ultrafine Particles in School Children (BREATHE) study, 186 typically developing participants aged 8-12 years underwent brain MRI on the same 1.5 T MR unit over a 1.5-year period (October 2012-April 2014). Brain volumes were derived from structural MRI scans using automated tissue segmentation. Behavioral problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the criteria of the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder DSM-IV list. Prenatal fine particle (PM2.5) levels were retrospectively estimated at the mothers' residential addresses during pregnancy with land use regression (LUR) models. To determine whether brain structures might be affected by prenatal PM2.5 exposure, linear regression models were run and adjusted for age, sex, intracranial volume (ICV), maternal education, home socioeconomic vulnerability index, birthweight and mothers' smoking status during pregnancy. To test for associations between brain changes and behavioral outcomes, negative binomial regressions were performed and adjusted for age, sex, ICV. RESULTS: Prenatal PM2.5 levels ranged from 11.8 to 39.5 µg/m3 during the third trimester of pregnancy. An interquartile range increase in PM2.5 level (7 µg/m3) was significantly linked to a decrease in the body CC volume (mm3) (ß = -53.7, 95%CI [-92.0, -15.5] corresponding to a 5% decrease of the mean body CC volume) independently of ICV, age, sex, maternal education, socioeconomic vulnerability index at home, birthweight and mothers' smoking status during the third trimester of pregnancy. A 50 mm3 decrease in the body CC was associated with a significant higher hyperactivity subscore (Rate Ratio (RR) = 1.09, 95%CI [1.01, 1.17) independently of age, sex and ICV. The statistical significance of these results did not survive to False Discovery Rate correction for multiple comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal exposure to PM2.5 may be associated with CC volume decrease in children. The consequences might be an increase in behavioral problems.

Predictors of personal exposure to black carbon among women in southern semi-rural Mozambique.

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the highest proportion of people using unclean fuels for household energy, which can result in products of incomplete combustion that are damaging for health. Black carbon (BC) is a useful marker of inefficient combustion-related particles; however, ambient air quality data and temporal patterns of personal exposure to BC in SSA are scarce. We measured ambient elemental carbon (EC), comparable to BC, and personal exposure to BC in women of childbearing age from a semi-rural area of southern Mozambique. We measured ambient EC over one year (2014-2015) using a high-volume sampler and an off-line thermo-optical-transmission method. We simultaneously measured 5-min resolved 24-h personal BC using a portable MicroAeth (AE51) in 202 women. We used backwards stepwise linear regression to identify predictors of log-transformed 24-h mean and peak (90th percentile) personal BC exposure. We analyzed data from 187 non-smoking women aged 16-46 years. While daily mean ambient EC reached moderate levels (0.9 µg/m3, Standard Deviation, SD: 0.6 µg/m3), daily mean personal BC reached high levels (15 µg/m3, SD: 19 µg/m3). Daily patterns of personal exposure revealed a peak between 6 and 7 pm (>35 µg/m3), attributable to kerosene-based lighting. Key determinants of mean and peak personal exposure to BC were lighting source, kitchen type, ambient EC levels, and temperature. This study highlights the important contribution of lighting sources to personal exposure to combustion particles in populations that lack access to clean household energy.

Association between Early Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Working Memory and Attention.

BACKGROUND: Although previous studies have reported negative associations between exposure to air pollution and cognition, studies of the effects of prenatal and postnatal exposures in early childhood have been limited. OBJECTIVES: We sought to assess the role exposure to fine particulate matter ([Formula: see text]) during different prenatal and postnatal windows may play in children's cognitive development at school age. METHODS: Within the Brain Development and Air Pollution Ultrafine Particles in School Children (BREATHE) Project, we estimated residential [Formula: see text] exposures by land use regression for the prenatal period and first seven postnatal years of 2,221 children from Barcelona, Spain. The participants ([Formula: see text]) completed computerized tests assessing working memory, attentiveness, and conflict network during four visits in 2012­2013. We used linear mixed effects and distributed lag models to assess the period of exposure to [Formula: see text] in association with cognitive development. RESULTS: Inverse associations were identified between [Formula: see text] exposure during the fifth and sixth postnatal years and working memory, with boys showing much higher vulnerability. Regarding attention functions, exposure to higher [Formula: see text] levels during the prenatal period and from the fourth postnatal year were associated with a reduction in conflict network performance, though we found no association with attentiveness. The overall estimated cumulative effect of a [Formula: see text] increase in [Formula: see text] resulted in a reduction in the working memory [Formula: see text] score of [Formula: see text] [95% confidence interval (CI): [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text]] points and an increase in the conflict attentional network of 11.31 (95% CI: 6.05, 16.57) milliseconds, indicating a poorer performance. CONCLUSIONS: Early life exposure to [Formula: see text] was associated with a reduction in fundamental cognitive abilities, including working memory and conflict attentional network. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3169.

Ambient air pollution and overweight and obesity in school-aged children in Barcelona, Spain.

BACKGROUND: Ambient air pollution may increase the risk of overweight and obesity in children. However, available evidence is still scarce and has mainly focused on ambient air pollution exposure occurring at home without considering the school environment. The aim of this study is to assess whether exposure to ambient air pollution at home and school is associated with overweight and obesity in primary school children. METHODS: We studied 2660 children aged 7-10 years during 2012 in Barcelona. Child weight and height were measured and age- and sex-specific z-scores for body mass index (zBMI) were calculated using the WHO growth reference 2007. Overweight and obesity were defined using the same reference. Land use regression models were used to estimate levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter <2.5 µm (PM2.5), <10 µm (PM10) and coarse (PMcoarse) at home. Outdoor levels of NO2, PM2.5, elemental carbon (EC), and ultrafine particles (UFP) were measured in the schoolyard. Multilevel mixed linear and ordered logistic models were used to assess the association between ambient air pollution (continuous per interquartile range (IQR) increase and categorical with tertile cutoffs) and zBMI (continuous and ordinal: normal, overweight, obese), after adjusting for socio-demographic characteristics. RESULTS: An IQR increase in PM10-home (5.6 µg/m3) was associated with a 10% increase in the odds of being overweight or obese (odds ratio (OR) = 1.10; 95% CI = 1.00, 1.22). Children exposed to the highest tertile of UFP-school (>27,346 particles/cm3) had a 30% higher odds of being overweight or obese (OR = 1.30; 95%CI = 1.03, 1.64) compared to the lowest tertile of UFP exposure. We also observed that exposure to NO2, PM2.5 or EC at schools was associated with higher odds of overweight or obese at medium compared to low levels of exposure. Home and school exposures did not show any significant associations with zBMI (except PM2.5-school comparing tertile 2 vs tertile 1) but were similar in direction. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that exposure to ambient air pollution, especially at school, is associated with childhood risk for overweight and obesity. A cautious interpretation is warranted because associations were not always linear and because school and home air pollution measurements were not directly comparable.

How to protect school children from the neurodevelopmental harms of air pollution by interventions in the school environment in the urban context.

Recently, there has been a flurry of publications assessing the effect of air pollution on neurodevelopment. Here we present a summary of the results obtained within the BRain dEvelopment and Air polluTion ultrafine particles in scHool childrEn (BREATHE) Project, which aimed to evaluate the effects of the exposure to traffic related air pollutants in schoolchildren in Barcelona. To this end, we comprehensively characterised air quality in 39 urban schools from Barcelona and identified the main determinants of children's increased exposure. We propose a series of measures to be implemented to improve air quality in schools within the urban context and, consequently, minimise the negative effects on children's neurodevelopment that we found to be associated with the exposure to air pollution. We also aimed to list some of the actions pushed by governments and the society (including school managers, parents, and children) that have been taking place around Europe for promoting better high quality in the school and its surroundings.

Traffic-Related Air Pollution, APOEε4 Status, and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes among School Children Enrolled in the BREATHE Project (Catalonia, Spain).

BACKGROUND: Traffic-related air pollution is emerging as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and impaired brain development. Individual differences in vulnerability to air pollution may involve the ε4 allele of Apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, the primary genetic risk factor for AD. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed whether the association between traffic air pollution and neurodevelopmental outcomes is modified by APOEε4 status in children. METHODS: Data on parent-reported behavior problems (total difficulties scores, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), teacher-reported attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom scores, cognitive performance trajectories (computerized tests of inattentiveness and working memory repeated 2-4 times during January 2012-March 2013), and APOE genotypes were obtained for 1,667 children age 7-11 y attending 39 schools in or near Barcelona. Basal ganglia volume (putamen, caudate, and globus pallidum) was measured in 163 of the children by MRI (October 2012-April 2014.) Average annual outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), elemental carbon (EC), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations were estimated based on measurements at each school (two 1-wk campaigns conducted 6 months apart in 2012). RESULTS: APOEε4 allele carriers had significantly higher behavior problem scores than noncarriers, and adverse associations with PAHs and NO2 were stronger or limited to ε4 carriers for behavior problem scores (P-interaction 0.03 and 0.04), caudate volume (P-interaction 0.04 and 0.03), and inattentiveness trajectories (P-interaction 0.15 and 0.08, respectively). Patterns of associations with the same outcomes were similar for EC. CONCLUSION: PAHs, EC, and NO2 were associated with higher behavior problem scores, smaller reductions in inattentiveness over time, and smaller caudate volume in APOEε4 allele carriers in our study population, and corresponding associations were weak or absent among ε4 noncarriers. These findings support a potential role of APOE in biological mechanisms that may contribute to associations between air pollution and neurobehavioral outcomes in children. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2246.

Short-term effects of ultrafine particles on daily mortality by primary vehicle exhaust versus secondary origin in three Spanish cities.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on the short-term effects of ultrafine particles (with diameter<100nm, UFP) on health is still inconsistent. New particles in ambient urban air are the result of direct emissions and also the formation of secondary UFP from gaseous precursors. We segregated UFP into these two components and investigated their impact on daily mortality in three Spanish cities affected by different sources of air pollution. METHODS: We separated the UFP using a method based on the high correlation between black carbon (BC) and particle number concentration (N). The first component accounts for aerosol constituents emitted by vehicle exhaust (N1) and the second for the photochemical new particle formation enhancements (N2). We applied city-specific Poisson regression models, adjusting for long-term trends, temperature and population dynamics. RESULTS: Mean BC levels were higher in Barcelona and Tenerife (1.8 and 1.2µg·m-3, respectively) than in Huelva (0.8µg·m-3). While mean UFP concentrations were similar in the three cities, from which N1 was 40% in Barcelona, 46% in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 27% in Huelva. We observed an association with N1 and daily mortality in Barcelona, by increasing approximately 1.5% between lags 0 and 2, per an interquartile increase (IQR) of 3277cm-3, but not with N2. A similar pattern was found in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, although none of the associations were significant. Conversely, in the industrial city of Huelva mortality was associated with N2 at lag 0, by increasing 3.9% per an IQR of 12,032·cm-3. CONCLUSION: The pattern and origin of UFP determines their short-term effect on human health. BC is possibly the better parameter to evaluate the health effects of particulate vehicle exhaust emissions, although in areas influenced by domestic solid fuel combustion this should also be taken into account.

Impact of commuting exposure to traffic-related air pollution on cognitive development in children walking to school.

A few studies have found associations between the exposure to traffic-related air pollution at school and/or home and cognitive development. The impact on cognitive development of the exposure to air pollutants during commuting has not been explored. We aimed to assess the role of the exposure to traffic-related air pollutants during walking commute to school on cognitive development of children. We performed a longitudinal study of children (n = 1,234, aged 7-10 y) from 39 schools in Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) who commuted by foot to school. Children were tested four times during a 12-month follow-up to characterize their developmental trajectories of working memory (d' of the three-back numbers test) and inattentiveness (hit reaction time standard error of the Attention Network Test). Average particulate matter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), Black Carbon (BC) and NO2 concentrations were estimated using Land Use Regression for the shortest walking route to school. Differences in cognitive growth were evaluated by linear mixed effects models with age-by-pollutant interaction terms. Exposure to PM2.5 and BC from the commutes by foot was associated with a reduction in the growth of working memory (an interquartile range increase in PM2.5 and BC concentrations decreased the annual growth of working memory by 5.4 (95% CI [-10.2, -0.6]) and 4.6 (95% CI [-9.0, -0.1]) points, respectively). The findings for NO2 were not conclusive and none of the pollutants were associated with inattentiveness. Efforts should be made to implement pedestrian school pathways through low traffic streets in order to increase security and minimize children's exposure to air pollutants.