Just as smart but not as successful: obese students obtain lower school grades but equivalent test scores to nonobese students.

OBJECTIVE: The obesity epidemic in industrialized nations has important implications for education, as research demonstrates lower academic achievement among obese students. The current paper compares the test scores and school grades of obese, overweight and normal-weight students in secondary and further education, controlling for demographic variables, personality, ability and well-being confounds. PARTICIPANTS: This study included 383 eighth-grade students (49% female; study 1) and 1036 students from 24 community colleges and universities (64% female, study 2), both drawn from five regions across the United States. MEASURES: In study 1, body mass index (BMI) was calculated using self-reports and parent reports of weight and height. In study 2, BMI was calculated from self-reported weight and height only. Both samples completed age-appropriate assessments of mathematics, vocabulary and the personality trait conscientiousness. Eighth-grade students additionally completed a measure of life satisfaction, with both self-reports and parent reports of their grades from the previous semester also obtained. Higher education students additionally completed measures of positive and negative affect, and self-reported their grades and college entrance scores. RESULTS: Obese students receive significantly lower grades in middle school (d=0.83), community college (d=0.34) and university (d=0.36), but show no statistically significant differences in intelligence or achievement test scores. Even after controlling for demographic variables, intelligence, personality and well-being, obese students obtain significantly lower grades than normal-weight students in the eighth grade (d=0.39), community college (d=0.42) and university (d=0.31). CONCLUSION: Lower grades may reflect peer and teacher prejudice against overweight and obese students rather than lack of ability among these students.

Psychophysiological correlates of the inter-individual variability of head movement control in seated humans.

We recently conducted experiments where 24 seated participants were subjected (with eyes closed) to small amplitude, high-jerk impulses of linear acceleration. Responses were distributed as a continuum between two extremes. The "stiff" participants showed little movement of the head relative to the trunk, whereas the "floppy" participants showed a large head rotation in the direction opposite the sled movement. We hypothesized that the stiff behavior resulted from the spontaneous use of an imagined visual frame of reference and undertook this larger-scale study to test that idea. The distribution along the "stiff-floppy" continuum was compared with the scores on psychophysiological tests measuring vividness of imagery, visual field-dependence and motion sickness susceptibility. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that the "stiffness" of individuals was loosely, but significantly related to the vividness of their imagery. However, "stiffness" was not linked to visual field-dependence or motion sickness susceptibility. Even if it explains only 20% of the variance of the data, the increase of "stiffness" with vividness of imagery fits our hypothesis. With eyes closed, stiff people may use imagined external visual cues to stabilize their head and trunk. Floppy people, who are poorer imagers, may rely more on "egocentric", proprioceptive and vestibular inputs.

Successful cryopreservation of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) oocytes.

Protocols for cryopreservation of sperm and oocytes would provide the ultimate control over parental crosses in selective breeding programmes. Sperm freezing is routine for many species, but oocyte freezing remains problematic, with virtually zero success in aquatic species to date. This paper describes the development of a successful protocol for cryopreserving high concentrations of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) oocytes. Ethylene glycol (10%) and dimethyl sulfoxide (15%) were found to be the most effective cryoprotectants resulting in post-thaw fertilization rates of 51.0+/-8.0 and 45.1+/-8.3%, respectively. Propylene glycol was less effective and methanol resulted in zero fertilization post-thaw. The use of Milli-Q water rather than seawater as a base medium significantly improved fertilization (20.4+/-3.0 and 8.7+/-2.2%, respectively) as did the inclusion of a 5 min isothermal hold at -10 or -12 degrees C (35.9+/-5.0 and 31.9+/-4.6%, respectively). The optimal cooling rate post-hold was 0.3 degrees C min(-1), with virtually zero post-thaw fertilization with cooling rates of 3 and 6 degrees C min(-1). Using an optimized protocol, post-thaw fertilization rates for oocytes from eight individual females ranged from 0.8 to 74.5% and D-larval yields from 0.1 to 30.1%. For three individuals, larvae were reared through to spat. Development of D-larvae to eyed larvae and spat was similar for larvae produced from unfrozen (24.8+/-4.1% developed to eyed larvae and 16.5+/-3.2% to spat) and cryopreserved (28.4+/-0.6 and 18.7+/-0.5%, respectively) oocytes. The ability to cryopreserve large quantities of oyster oocytes represents a major advance in cryobiology and selective breeding.

Pathology of cultured paua Haliotis iris infected with a novel haplosporidian parasite, with some observations on the course of disease.

Mortalities among juvenile paua Haliotis iris Martyn 1784 in a commercial culture facility were reported in April 2000. Histology of moribund paua showed heavy systemic infections of a uni- to multi-nucleate stage of a novel organism later confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and molecular studies to be a haplosporidian. Multinucleate plasmodia up to 25 microm diameter with up to 17 nuclei were detectable in wet preparations of hemolymph from heavily infected paua. The presence of the haplosporidian in the affected facility was associated with mortalities of slow growing 'runt' paua during the summer months. Total mortalities in affected raceways 6 mo after mortalities began were between 82.5 and 90%. Heavily infected paua exhibited behavioural abnormalities including lethargy, loss of righting reflex, and were easily detached from surfaces. Some heavily infected paua exhibited oedema and pale lesions in the foot and mantle, but no reliable gross signs of disease were noted. Light infections of the haplosporidian were also found in apparently healthy paua from the facility. Histology indicated that the early stages of infection were characterised by small numbers of plasmodia in the connective tissue surrounding the gut, amongst glial cells adjacent to nerves in the mantle and foot and within gill lamellae. In heavy infections, large numbers of small plasmodia (mean size 5.5 x 7 microm in histological sections) were present in the hemolymph, gills, heart, kidneys, mantle, foot, epipodium and connective tissue of the digestive gland. Infections were not transferred horizontally at 14 and 19 degrees C after cohabiting heavily infected paua with uninfected paua for 3 mo in aquaria, or 3 mo after injecting healthy paua with hemolymph containing haplosporidian plasmodia. This may indicate that the prepatent period for disease is longer than 3 mo, that disease is not expressed below 20 degrees C, or that an intermediate host is required for transmission. Spore formation was not observed in juvenile paua but sporocyst-like bodies containing putative spores were observed amongst haplosporidian plasmodia in the right kidney of poorly performing adult paua collected from the wild.

Individual differences in performance on elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs): lawful vs. problematic parameters.

Over the past 2 decades, the cognitive-correlates approach has dominated investigations into the nature of intelligence. This research program relies on a number of processing speed parameters (apart from "average performance"). These measures include the slope, intercept, and intraindividual variability of both decision time and movement time. By correlating these measures with established markers of intelligence, researchers postulate theoretical models underlying these information-processing constructs. However, there is a lack of substantive evidence that these phenomena are as robust within the individual as has been proposed. The authors tested the properties of intraindividual parameters by asking participants (N = 179) to perform 10 elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs). Detailed analyses revealed that average performance parameters, extracted from these ECTs, behaved lawfully. However, up to 40% of participants failed to provide acceptable indices of intraindividual model fit. Similarly, intraindividual variability measures appeared less valid than previously suggested. The implications of these findings for cognitive and biological models of intelligence are discussed.

Effect of delayed metamorphosis on larval competence, and post-larval survival and growth, in the abalone Haliotis iris Gmelin.

Marine invertebrate species vary in their ability to delay metamorphosis, and in the degree to which delayed metamorphosis compromises juvenile performance. Abalone (Haliotis iris) larvae were deprived of metamorphosis cues and the effects of delayed metamorphosis on larval competence, and post-larval growth and survival were quantified. Larvae were exposed to a metamorphosis inducer (the coralline alga Phymatolithon repandum (Foslie) Wilks and Woelkerling) on Days 11, 18, 22, 26, 30 and 34 post-fertilisation (temperature 16-17 degrees C). Post-larvae were reared on diatoms (Nitzschia longissima Grunow) for 3-4 weeks post-metamorphosis. Delayed metamorphosis caused progressive negative effects on post-larval performance. Virtually all larvae initiated metamorphosis in response to P. repandum, regardless of larval age. The proportion of post-larvae that developed post-larval shell growth within 2 days of metamorphosis induction dropped only approximately 20% from Day 11 to Day 26 (P>0.05), but was significantly lower by Day 30 and Day 34 (P<0.001). Larvae that metamorphosed on Days 11, 18 and 22 showed high survival (>80%) and growth rates (means of 20-22 µm shell length per day). In contrast, larvae that metamorphosed on Day 26 and Day 30 had poor survival (30-40%) and lower (P<0.05) growth rates (15-16 µm/day). Of the larvae that metamorphosed on Day 34, only 7 (30%) survived their first week post-metamorphosis, and they grew only 2 µm/day on average. Only one of these post-larvae (4%) survived the second week. The visible yolk supply diminished over the life of the larvae and was near zero by Day 34. Nearly all larvae had died by Day 38. H. iris larvae remained competent to metamorphose for at least 3 weeks after they attained competence. Post-larval growth and survival were not reduced if metamorphosis occurred within 3 weeks of fertilisation. This extended period of larval competence implies that H. iris larvae can potentially disperse for up to several weeks before successful metamorphosis.

Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions.

Performance-based measures of emotional intelligence (EI) are more likely than measures based on self-report to assess EI as a construct distinct from personality. A multivariate investigation was conducted with the performance-based, Multi-Factor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS; J. D. Mayer, D. Caruso, & P. Salovey, 1999). Participants (N = 704) also completed the Trait Self-Description Inventory (TSDI, a measure of the Big Five personality factors; Christal, 1994; R. D. Roberts et al.), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB, a measure of intelligence). Results were equivocal. Although the MEIS showed convergent validity (correlating moderately with the ASVAB) and divergent validity (correlating minimally with the TSDI), different scoring protocols (i.e., expert and consensus) yielded contradictory findings. Analyses of factor structure and subscale reliability identified further measurement problems. Overall, it is questionable whether the MEIS operationalizes EI as a reliable and valid construct.

Slow down, you move too fast: emotional intelligence remains an "elusive" intelligence.

Commentators on the R. D. Roberts, M. Zeidner, and G. Matthews (2001) article on the measurement of emotional intelligence (EI) made various pertinent observations that confirm the growing interest in this topic. This rejoinder finds general agreement on some key issues: learning from the history of ability testing, developing more sophisticated structural models of ability, studying emotional abilities across the life span, and establishing predictive and construct validity. However, scoring methods for tests of EI remain problematic. This rejoinder acknowledges recent improvements in convergence between different scoring methods but discusses further difficulties related to (a) neglect of group differences in normative social behaviors, (b) segregation of separate domains of knowledge linked to cognitive and emotional intelligences, (c) potential confounding of competence with learned skills and cultural factors, and (d) lack of specification of adaptive functions of EI. Empirical studies have not yet established that the Multi-Factor Emotional Intelligence Scale and related tests assess a broad EI factor of real-world significance.

Monoalleleic transcription of the insulin-like growth factor-II gene (Igf2) in chick embryos.

A polymorphism in the igf2 gene of chickens was identified using NlaIII (GenBank accession number AF218827). In some embryos, the igf2 alleles were expressed monoallelically from either maternal or paternal alleles. These data demonstrate that genomic imprinting is not confined to mammalian vertebrates and suggest that genomic imprinting evolved at an early stage of vertebrate evolution. The observations that the igf2 gene is imprinted in a minority of embryos suggest that the imprinting in birds is unrelated to embryonic growth. Genome imprinting may provide opportunities for evolution of genes in a nonexpressed state. In poultry breeding, the presence of imprinted genes may make a major contribution to unequal performance in reciprocal matings between commercial lines.

Biological versus psychometric intelligence: Halstead's (1947) distinction revisited.

This article reports an investigation into the empirical status of a little understood cognitive factor-tactile-kinesthetic ability. To this end, a variety of haptic tasks, including three subtests of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRB), were administered to 108 participants, along with established markers commonly employed in contemporary psychometric investigations. The results suggest that these subtests of the HRB measure cognitive abilities conceptually equivalent to fluid intelligence. Since these tests reflect efforts to operationalize Halstead's (1947) concept of "biological intelligence," the results reported herein allow evaluation of this concept in relation to current models of human intelligence. Previous studies investigating the nature of abilities assessed by the HRB have reached contradictory conclusions. Present findings clarify the source of these anomalies.

Mitogenic effects of fibroblast growth factors on chicken granulosa and theca cells in vitro.

We have investigated the role that fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) may play in the rapid growth of preovulatory ovarian follicles in chickens. Granulosa and theca cells, dissected from the follicles of laying hens, were cultured in vitro and treated with FGF-1, FGF-2, FGF-5, and FGF-7. The synthesis of DNA by cultured cells was measured by incorporation of [(3)H]thymidine, which was added to the cultures. FGF-1 and -2 increased the synthesis of DNA in a dose-dependent manner in both cell types; however, FGF-5 and -7 had no effect in this respect. When genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, was added to these cultures, the synthesis of DNA due to FGF-2 was abolished. Treatment of cells with the glycosaminoglycans heparan sulphate and chondroitin sulphate had no effect on FGF-2-induced mitogenesis, while heparin inhibited it. Addition of a glycosaminoglycan antagonist, hexadimethrine bromide, to FGF-2-treated cultures inhibited DNA synthesis due to FGF-2, although not completely. Our data show that FGF-1 and FGF-2 are mitogenic for chicken granulosa and theca cells, and indicate that the actions of FGF-2 may be mediated via both tyrosine-kinase-type and glycosaminoglycan-type receptors on the surface of these cells.

Morningness-eveningness and intelligence: early to bed, early to rise will likely make you anything but wise!

Research examining various psychological correlates of circadian type (also known as diurnal preference) has been, over the years, quite expansive. A notable omission within this research program would appear a systematic exploration of the relation between intelligence and morningness-eveningness. The present study redressed this imbalance. 420 participants performed two self-report inventories assessing circadian type, as well as measures of intelligence from two psychometric batteries: CAM-IV and the ASVAB. The results indicate that, contrary to conventional folk wisdom, evening-types are more likely to have higher intelligence scores. This result is discussed in relation to current theories concerning the nature of human cognitive abilities.

Emotional intelligence: in search of an elusive construct.

The view that emotional intelligence should be included within the traditional cognitive abilities framework was explored in 3 studies (total N = 530) by investigating the relations among measures of emotional intelligence, traditional human cognitive abilities, and personality. The studies suggest that the status of the emotional intelligence construct is limited by measurement properties of its tests. Measures based on consensual scoring exhibited low reliability. Self-report measures had salient loadings on well-established personality factors, indicating a lack of divergent validity. These data provide controvertible evidence for the existence of a separate Emotion Perception factor that (perhaps) represents the ability to monitor another individual's emotions. This factor is narrower than that postulated within current models of emotional intelligence.

Physician financial relationships in the new regulatory environment.

In recent months, physicians have been under scrutiny by the federal government with respect to their financial relationships with both drug manufacturers and home care companies. This heightened scrutiny can be attributed, in part, to the attention that has been placed on health care fraud and abuse in this country as a major cause of rising health care costs. Federal investigators currently are examining physician financial relationships in light of the Medicare/Medicaid antikickback statute to determine whether certain payments made to physicians are intended as inducements to refer patients or to prescribe certain products. "Health Law" is a regular feature of Physician Executive contributed by Epstein Becker & Green. Mark Lutes of the law firm's Washington, D.C., offices serves as column editor.

Insulin-like growth factor-I in the ovary of the laying hen: gene expression and biological actions on granulosa and thecal cells.

Concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) were measured in granulosa and thecal tissue dissected from the three largest follicles in the ovaries of laying hens. The higher concentration was found in extracts of granulosa (0.82 +/- 0.01 pmol/g wet wt) and theca (0.36 +/- 0.02), both of which were greater than that in liver extracts (0.25 +/- 0.01). RNA was extracted from these tissues, and by using reverse transcription and the polymerase chain reaction with primers specific for chicken IGF-I, both granulosa and thecal tissue were shown to express chicken IGF-I mRNA. Granulosa and thecal cell cultures were established and used to measure IGF binding sites and the response to exogenous IGF peptides in terms of DNA synthesis. Both cell types bound [125I]IGF-I, which was displaced by IGF-I, IGF-II, and insulin in descending order of potency, characteristic of a type-I IGF receptor. Treatment of granulosa and thecal cell cultures with IGF-I resulted in a dose-dependent increase in [3H]thymidine incorporation into DNA by both cell types. LH, but not FSH, stimulated DNA synthesis in cultured granulosa cells but not in cultured thecal cells. This effect was enhanced in granulosa cells by the addition of IGF-I to the culture medium. These data are consistent with an autocrine or paracrine role for IGF-I within the developing ovarian follicle of the domestic hen.

The power of health care value-adding partnerships: meeting competition through cooperation.

Given the hypercompetitive health care industry, proposing cooperation as a means to survive and prosper appears radical. This article develops a case for the formation of a health care value-adding partnership as a viable, if not preferred, alternative to the integrated health care system owned and controlled by a single entity. The conceptual and the practical aspects of obtaining voluntary cooperation are addressed, and examples of successful value-adding partnerships are presented.

Beyond competition.

Hospitals and individuals who form lasting symbiotic relationships that leave both parties intact as viable adversaries will outperform both their non-cooperative and their non-competitive rivals.

The RHJ/Le rhino mutant: description of a unique murine model of autoimmunity.

The BALB/c HuDI-hrrh rhino mutant, which is no longer available, was an unusual murine model with prominent hepatic inflammation and fibrosis. The current report describes the early appearance of hepatic portal tract inflammation and antinuclear antibodies in the RHJ/Le mouse, a related rhino mutant which is distributed from a commercial source. All homozygous RHJ/Le rhino (hrrh hrrh) mice examined serially from 2 to 18 months of age developed inflammation of hepatic portal tracts. In 81 per cent of mice, portal and central veins were infiltrated with mononuclear cells. Focal infiltrates were found in salivary, Harderian and lacrimal glands and in the pancreas. Isolated animals had myositis involving skeletal muscle and myocardium. Heterogeneous antinuclear antibodies were detected in sera from 100 per cent of rhino mice and antibodies to DNA were present in 28 per cent of mice aged 6 months. Homozygous HRS/J hairless (hr/hr) and BALB/c controls failed to show consistent abnormalities in exocrine glands or liver. We conclude that the RHJ/Le rhino mutant spontaneously develops antinuclear antibodies and mononuclear cell infiltration in liver and exocrine glands. These animals provide unique opportunities to examine inflammatory lesions localized to specific target organs in an animal model of autoimmunity.

Improving the quality and quantity of whole blood supply: limits to voluntary arrangements.

The inadvertent transmission of AIDS virus through contaminated whole blood has shaken the viability of the American voluntary blood supply system. For the first time since the voluntary donor system replaced the commercial blood system, there are widespread doubts about the ability of blood suppliers to meet the nation's increasing health care demands. This paper presents a framework for analyzing blood collection. First, we critique the existing literature on blood collection, arguing that its focus on donor motivation is difficult to integrate with policy analysis. We then present a specific model of the individual's decision to donate blood as a comparison of the costs and benefits of donating. The current system of collecting whole blood relies on donors receiving only altruistic benefits. We explore the limits of this approach to dealing with the quantity and quality problems presented by the AIDS virus. Alternative approaches to blood collection which allow personal benefits--such as donor designation or monetary payments--may be necessary to supply the nation's blood demands in the future.

The pathophysiology and response to steroid therapy in sarcoidosis.

Fourteen patients with early sarcoidosis were prospectively studied over a period of 12-24 months. After baseline physiologic measurements they were treated with 40 mg of prednisone daily for 8 weeks and the measurements were repeated. Thereafter, the steroid dosage was reduced to 0-10 mg every other day and the measurements were repeated between the 12th and 24th month. Relatively normal lung volumes (VC, FRC, RV, TLC) and low DLCO increased with 8-week intensive steroid treatment and fell to below the pretreatment levels when the steroid was either tapered or stopped. The Vmax50-air, Vmax50-He, FEF25-75, upstream conductance (Gus) increased during intensive treatment whereas the RL fell and the FEV1/FVC ratio did not change. The CC/TLC, CV/VC, delta N2, CLdyn/CLst, delta Vmax50 were abnormal in many patients and did not change after 8 weeks of steroid treatment. We concluded that the obstructive defect is common in early sarcoidosis, predominantly in small airways and patchy in nature; the functional derangement is always improved by intensive and adequate steroid therapy and worsened when the drug is tapered or stopped.