Central Venous Catheter Consideration in Pediatric Oncology: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis From the American Pediatric Surgical Association Cancer Committee.

BACKGROUND: Tunneled central venous catheters (CVCs) are the cornerstone of modern oncologic practice. Establishing best practices for catheter management in children with cancer is essential to optimize care, but few guidelines exist to guide placement and management. OBJECTIVES: To address four questions: 1) Does catheter composition influence the incidence of complications; 2) Is there a platelet count below which catheter placement poses an increased risk of complications; 3) Is there an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) below which catheter placement poses an increased risk of complications; and 4) Are there best practices for the management of a central line associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI)? METHODS: Data Sources: English language articles in Ovid Medline, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Databases. STUDY SELECTION: Independently performed by 2 reviewers, disagreements resolved by a third reviewer. DATA EXTRACTION: Performed by 4 reviewers on forms designed by consensus, quality assessed by GRADE methodology. RESULTS: Data were extracted from 110 manuscripts. There was no significant difference in fracture rate, venous thrombosis, catheter occlusion or infection by catheter composition. Thrombocytopenia with minimum thresholds of 30,000-50,000 platelets/mcl was not associated with major hematoma. Limited evidence suggests a platelet count <30,000/mcL was associated with small increased risk of hematoma. While few studies found a significant increase in CLABSI in CVCs placed in neutropenic patients with ANC<500Kcells/dl, meta-analysis suggests a small increase in this population. Catheter removal remains recommended in complicated or persistent infections. Limited evidence supports antibiotic, ethanol, or hydrochloric lock therapy in definitive catheter salvage. No high-quality data were available to answer any of the proposed questions. CONCLUSIONS: Although over 15,000 tunneled catheters are placed annually in North America into children with cancer, there is a paucity of evidence to guide practice, suggesting multiple opportunities to improve care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III. This study was registered as PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019124077.

Critical elements of pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma surgery.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children, requires multimodal therapy which is determined by risk group stratification. Local control may be achieved by surgical resection, radiation, or both. Resection may occur upfront or following induction chemotherapy as a delayed primary excision. An R1 resection may allow a reduction in radiation exposure; however, debulking is not indicated nor is excision of residual masses at the end of therapy. Regional lymph node assessment is an important component of surgical care, as positive nodal basins require radiation. Depending on the tumor site and biology, sentinel lymph node biopsy vs biopsy of clinically or radiographically concerning nodes is indicated. Therapeutic lymph node dissection is never indicated. Familiarity with site-specific oncologic principles for RMS and participation in a multidisciplinary team including Pediatric Oncology and Radiation Oncology are necessary components of surgical care to ensure optimal outcomes.

Implications of Immunotherapy for Pediatric Malignancies: A Summary from the APSA Cancer Committee.

Although survival for many pediatric cancers has improved with advances in conventional chemotherapeutic regimens and surgical techniques in the last several decades, it remains a leading cause of disease-related death in children. Outcomes in patients with recurrent, refractory, or metastatic disease are especially poor. Recently, the advent of alternative classes of therapies, including immunotherapies, have revolutionized systemic treatment for pediatric malignancies. Several classes of immunotherapies, including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy, transgenic T-cell receptor (TCR)-T cell therapy, bispecific T-cell engagers, and monoclonal antibody checkpoint inhibitors have been FDA-approved or entered early-phase clinical trials in children and young adults. The pediatric surgeon is likely to encounter these therapies during the care of children with malignancies and should be familiar with the classes of therapy, indications, adverse events, and potential need for surgical intervention in these cases. This review from the APSA Cancer Committee offers a brief discussion of the three most encountered classes of immunotherapy in children and young adults and discusses surgical relevance. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcomas of the Genitourinary Tract.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in the pediatric and adolescent population, with 350 new cases diagnosed each year. While they can develop anywhere in the body, the genitourinary tract is the second most common primary location for an RMS to develop. Overall survival has improved through the increased use of protocols and multidisciplinary approaches. However, the guidelines for management continue to change as systemic and radiation therapeutics advance. Given the relative rarity of this disease compared to other non-solid childhood malignancies, healthcare providers not directly managing RMS may not be familiar with their presentation and updated management. This review aims to provide foundational knowledge of the management of RMSs with an emphasis on specific management paradigms for those arising from the genitourinary tract. The genitourinary tract is the second most common location for an RMS to develop but varies greatly in symptomology and survival depending on the organ of origin. As the clinical understanding of these tumors advances, treatment paradigms have evolved. Herein, we describe the breadth of presentations for genitourinary RMSs with diagnostic and treatment management considerations, incorporating the most recently available guidelines and societal consensus recommendations.

The Utility of Intraoperative Neuromonitoring in Pediatric Surgical Oncology.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative nerve monitoring (IONM) is a technique used to decrease the possibility of nerve-associated morbidity and damage to nearby neural structures during complex surgical procedures. The use and potential benefits of IONM in pediatric surgical oncology are not well-described. METHODS: An overview of the current literature was performed to elucidate the various techniques that may be useful to pediatric surgeons for resection of solid tumors in children. RESULTS: The physiology and common types of IONM relevant to the pediatric surgeon are described. Important anesthetic considerations are reviewed. Specific applications for IONM that may be useful in pediatric surgical oncology are then summarized, including its use for monitoring the recurrent laryngeal nerve, the facial nerve, the brachial plexus, spinal nerves, and lower extremity nerves. Troubleshooting techniques regarding common pitfalls are then proposed. CONCLUSION: IONM is a technique that may be beneficial in pediatric surgical oncology to minimize nerve injury during extensive tumor resections. This review aimed to elucidate the various techniques available. IONM should be considered as an adjunct for the safe resection of solid tumors in children in the proper setting with the appropriate level of expertise. A multidisciplinary approach is advised. Additional studies are necessary to further clarify the optimal use and outcomes in this patient population. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Local treatment of rhabdomyosarcoma of the female genital tract: Expert consensus from the Children's Oncology Group, the European Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Group, and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe.

The International Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Consortium (INSTRuCT) was founded as an international collaboration between different pediatric soft-tissue sarcoma cooperative groups (Children's Oncology Group, European Pediatric Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Group, and Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe). Besides other tasks, a major goal of INSTRuCT is to develop consensus expert opinions for best clinical treatment. This consensus paper for patients with rhabdomyosarcoma of the female genital tract (FGU-RMS) provides treatment recommendations for local treatment, long-term follow-up, and fertility preservation. Therefore, a review of the current literature was combined with recommendations of the treatment protocols of the appropriate clinical trials. Additionally, opinions of international FGU-RMS experts were incorporated into recommendations. Results were that the prognosis of FGU-RMS is favorable with an excellent response to chemotherapy. Initial complete surgical resection is not indicated, but diagnosis should be established properly. In patients with tumors localized at the vagina or cervix demonstrating incomplete response after induction chemotherapy, local radiotherapy (brachytherapy) should be carried out. In patients with persistent tumors at the corpus uteri, hysterectomy should be performed. Fertility preservation should be considered in all patients. In conclusion, for the first time, an international consensus for the treatment of FGU-RMS patients could be achieved, which will help to harmonize the treatment of these patients in different study groups.

Surgical management of extremity rhabdomyosarcoma: A consensus opinion from the Children's Oncology Group, the European Pediatric Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Study Group, and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe.

The treatment of extremity rhabdomyosarcoma remains a challenge due to several adverse prognostic factors frequently associated with this tumor site. The International Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Database Consortium (INSTRuCT) is a collaboration of the Children's Oncology Group Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Committee, the European Pediatric Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Study Group, and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe. The INSTRuCT surgical committee developed an internationally applicable consensus opinion document for the surgical treatment of extremity rhabdomyosarcoma. This document addresses surgical management, including biopsy, nodal staging, timing of therapy, resection and reexcision, reconstruction, and surgical approach at relapse.

Abdominal Tumors: Wilms, Neuroblastoma, Rhabdomyosarcoma, and Hepatoblastoma.

Pediatric cancer patients have improved outcomes over the past several decades leading to a greater number of survivors living well into adulthood. Owing to their increased longevity, adult care providers are encountering childhood cancer survivors with greater frequency in their clinics and hospitals. Childhood cancer treatments are associated with varied and significant systemic complications that either persist or develop well into adulthood, including secondary malignancies, cardiomyopathies, and adhesive disease that can complicate even the simplest operation. This article reviews four of the most common solid abdominal tumors in the pediatric population and the long-term sequelae of their respective treatment regimens.

Creating a data commons: The INternational Soft Tissue SaRcoma ConsorTium (INSTRuCT).

In this article, we will discuss the genesis, evolution, and progress of the INternational Soft Tissue SaRcoma ConsorTium (INSTRuCT), which aims to foster international research and collaboration focused on pediatric soft tissue sarcoma. We will begin by highlighting the current state of clinical research for pediatric soft tissue sarcomas, including rhabdomyosarcoma and non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. We will then explore challenges and research priorities, describe the development of INSTRuCT, and discuss how the consortium aims to address key research priorities.

Clinical group and modified TNM stage for rhabdomyosarcoma: A review from the Children's Oncology Group.

The Children's Oncology Group (COG) uses Clinical Group (CG) and modified Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) stage to classify rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS). CG is based on surgicopathologic findings and is determined after the completion of initial surgical procedure(s) but prior to chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. The modified TNM stage is based on clinical and radiographic findings and is assigned prior to any treatment. These systems have evolved over several decades. We review the history, evolution, and rationale behind the current CG and modified TNM classification systems used by COG for RMS. Data from the seven most recently completed and reported frontline COG trials (D9602, D9802, D9803, ARST0331, ARST0431, ARST0531, ARST08P1) were analyzed, and confirm that CG and modified TNM stage remain relevant and useful for predicting prognosis in RMS. We propose updates based on recent data and discuss factors warranting future study to further optimize these classification systems.

An update on rhabdomyosarcoma risk stratification and the rationale for current and future Children's Oncology Group clinical trials.

Children and adolescents with rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) comprise a heterogeneous population with variable overall survival rates ranging between approximately 6% and 100% depending on defined risk factors. Although the risk stratification of patients has been refined across five decades of collaborative group studies, molecular prognostic biomarkers beyond FOXO1 fusion status have yet to be incorporated prospectively in upfront risk-based therapy assignments. This review describes the evolution of risk-based therapy and the current risk stratification, defines a new risk stratification incorporating novel biomarkers, and provides the rationale for the current and upcoming Children's Oncology Group RMS studies.

Update on pediatric testicular germ cell tumors.

BACKGROUND: Testicular germ cell tumors are uncommon tumors that are encountered by pediatric surgeons and urologists and require a knowledge of appropriate contemporary evaluation and surgical and medical management. METHOD: A review of the recommended diagnostic evaluation and current surgical and medical management of children and adolescents with testicular germ cell tumors based upon recently completed clinical trials was performed and summarized in this article. RESULTS: In this summary of childhood and adolescent testicular germ cell tumors, we review the initial clinical evaluation, surgical and medical management, risk stratification, results from recent prospective cooperative group studies, and clinical outcomes. A summary of recently completed clinical trials by pediatric oncology cooperative groups is provided, and best surgical practices are discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Testicular germ cell tumors in children are rare tumors. International collaborations, data-sharing, and enrollment of patients at all stages and risk classifications into active clinical trials will enhance our knowledge of these rare tumors and most importantly improve outcomes of patients with testicular germ cell tumors. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: This is a review article of previously published and referenced level 1 and 2 studies, but also includes expert opinion level 5, represented by the American Pediatric Surgical Association Cancer Committee.

Pediatric solid tumors and associated cancer predisposition syndromes: Workup, management, and surveillance. A summary from the APSA Cancer Committee.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Cancer predisposition syndromes (CPS) are a heterogeneous group of inherited disorders that greatly increase the risk of developing malignancies. CPS are particularly relevant to pediatric surgeons since nearly 10% of cancer diagnoses are due to inherited genetic traits, and CPS often contribute to cancer development during childhood. MATERIALS/METHODS: The English language literature was searched for manuscripts, practice guidelines, and society statements on "cancer predisposition syndromes in children". Following review of these manuscripts and cross-referencing of their bibliographies, tables were created to summarize findings of the most common CPS associated with surgically treated pediatric solid malignancies. RESULTS: Pediatric surgeons should be aware of CPS as the identification of one of these syndromes can completely change the management of certain tumors, such as WT. The most common CPS associated with pediatric solid malignancies are outlined, with an emphasis on those most often encountered by pediatric surgeons: neuroblastoma, Wilms' tumor, hepatoblastoma, and medullary thyroid cancer. Frequently associated non-tumor manifestations of these CPS are also included as a guide to increase surgeon awareness. Screening and management guidelines are outlined, and published genetic testing and counseling guidelines are included where available. CONCLUSION: Pediatric surgeons play an important role as surgical oncologists and are often the first point of contact for children with solid tumors. In their role of delivering a diagnosis and developing a follow-up and treatment plan as part of a multidisciplinary team, familiarity with common CPS will ensure evidence-based practices are followed, including important principles such as organ preservation and intensified surveillance plans. This review defines and summarizes the CPS associated with common childhood solid tumors encountered by the pediatric surgeon, as well as common non-cancerous disease stigmata that may help guide diagnosis. TYPE OF STUDY: Summary paper. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 5.

Treatment Concepts and Challenges in Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcomas.

Pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas (NRSTSs) encompass a heterogeneous group of mesenchymal tumors with more than 50 histologic variants. The incidence of NRSTS is greater than rhabdomyosarcoma; however, each histologic type is rare. The treatment schema for all NRSTSs is largely surgical. The treatment is a risk-adapted approach based on tumor size, localization, tumor grade, and presence of metastases. Low-grade tumors are mainly managed by surgery alone, whereas for high-grade tumors a multimodal treatment concept is necessary. The multimodal treatment consists of tumor biopsy, chemotherapy, local treatment (surgery ± radiotherapy), and immunotherapy in selected conditions.

Surgical management of paratesticular rhabdomyosarcoma: A consensus opinion from the Children's Oncology Group, European paediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group, and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe.

The treatment of paratesticular rhabdomyosarcoma (PT-RMS) has varied over time and by cooperative group. The International Soft Tissue Sarcoma Database Consortium (INSTRuCT) is a collaboration of the Children's Oncology Group (COG) Soft Tissue Sarcoma Committee, European pediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG), and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). The INSTRuCT surgical committee has been given charge of the development of internationally applicable consensus guidelines for the surgical treatment of rhabdomyosarcoma. This clinical consensus opinion document addresses accepted principles and areas of controversy, such as scrotal violation and retroperitoneal nodal evaluation, providing an evidence-based guideline for the surgical treatment for PT-RMS.

Local Control For High-Grade Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcoma Assigned to Radiation Therapy on ARST0332: A Report From the Childrens Oncology Group.

PURPOSE: The ARST0332 trial for pediatric and young adults with nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma (NRSTS) used risk-based treatment including primary resection with lower-than-standard radiation doses to optimize local control (LC) while minimizing long-term toxicity in those requiring radiation therapy (RT). RT for high-grade NRSTS was based on extent of resection (R0: negative margins, R1: microscopic margins, R2/U: gross disease/unresectable); those with >5 cm tumors received chemotherapy (CT; ifosfamide/doxorubicin). This analysis evaluates LC for patients assigned to RT and prognostic factors associated with local recurrence (LR). METHODS AND MATERIALS: Patients aged <30 years with high-grade NRSTS received RT (55.8 Gy) for R1 ≤5 cm tumor (arm B); RT (55.8 Gy)/CT for R0/R1 >5 cm tumor (arm C); or neoadjuvant RT (45 Gy)/CT plus delayed surgery, CT, and postoperative boost to 10.8 Gy R0 <5 mm margins/R1 or 19.8 Gy for R2/unresected tumors (arm D). RESULTS: One hundred ninety-three eligible patients had 24 LRs (arm B 1/15 [6.7%], arm C 7/65 [10.8%], arm D 16/113 [14.2%]) at median time to LR of 1.1 years (range, 0.11-5.27). Of 95 eligible for delayed surgery after neoadjuvant therapy, 89 (93.7%) achieved R0/R1 margins. Overall LC after RT were as follows: R0, 106 of 109 (97%); R1, 51 of 60 (85%); and R2/unresectable, 2 of 6 (33%). LR predictors include extent of delayed resection (P <.001), imaging response before delayed surgery (P < .001), histologic subtype (P <.001), and no RT (P = .046). The 5-year event-free survival was significantly lower (P = .0003) for patients unable to undergo R0/R1 resection. CONCLUSIONS: Risk-based treatment for young patients with high-grade NRSTS treated on ARST0332 produced very high LC, particularly after R0 resection (97%), despite lower-than-standard RT doses. Neoadjuvant CT/RT enabled delayed R0/R1 resection in most patients and is preferred over adjuvant therapy due to the lower RT dose delivered.

Metabolic response as assessed by 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography does not predict outcome in patients with intermediate- or high-risk rhabdomyosarcoma: A report from the Children's Oncology Group Soft Tissue Sarcoma Committee.

BACKGROUND: Strategies to optimize management in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) include risk stratification to assign therapy aiming to minimize treatment morbidity yet improve outcomes. This analysis evaluated the relationship between complete metabolic response (CMR) as assessed by 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (FDG-PET) imaging and event-free survival (EFS) in intermediate-risk (IR) and high-risk (HR) RMS patients. METHODS: FDG-PET imaging characteristics, including assessment of CMR and maximum standard uptake values (SUVmax) of the primary tumor, were evaluated by central review. Institutional reports of SUVmax were used when SUVmax values could not be determined by central review. One hundred and thirty IR and 105 HR patients had FDG-PET scans submitted for central review or had SUVmax data available from institutional report at any time point. A Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to evaluate the relationship between these parameters and EFS. RESULTS: SUVmax at study entry did not correlate with EFS for IR (p = 0.32) or HR (p = 0.86) patients. Compared to patients who did not achieve a CMR, EFS was not superior for IR patients who achieved a CMR at weeks 4 (p = 0.66) or 15 (p = 0.46), nor for HR patients who achieved CMR at week 6 (p = 0.75) or 19 (p = 0.28). Change in SUVmax at week 4 (p = 0.21) or 15 (p = 0.91) for IR patients or at week 6 (p = 0.75) or 19 (p = 0.61) for HR patients did not correlate with EFS. CONCLUSION: Based on these data, FDG-PET does not appear to predict EFS in IR or HR-RMS. It remains to be determined whether FDG-PET has a role in predicting survival outcomes in other RMS subpopulations.

Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma with regional nodal involvement: Results of a combined analysis from two cooperative groups.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of children and adolescents with alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (ARMS) and regional nodal involvement (N1) have been approached differently by North American and European cooperative groups. In order to define a better therapeutic strategy, we analyzed two studies conducted between 2005 and 2016 by the European paediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG) and Children's Oncology Group (COG). METHODS: We retrospectively identified patients with ARMS N1 enrolled in either EpSSG RMS2005 or in COG ARST0531. Chemotherapy in RMS2005 comprised ifosfamide + vincristine + dactinomycin + doxorubicin (IVADo), IVA and maintenance (vinorelbine, cyclophosphamide); in ARST0531, it consisted of either vincristine + dactinomycin + cyclophosphamide (VAC) or VAC alternating with vincristine + irinotecan (VI). Local treatment was similar in both protocols. RESULTS: The analysis of the clinical characteristics of 239 patients showed some differences between study groups: in RMS2005, advanced Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group (IRS) and large tumors predominated. There were no differences in outcomes between the two groups: 5-year event-free survival (EFS), 49% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 39-59) and 44% (95% CI: 30-58), and overall survival (OS), 51% (95% CI: 41-61) and 53.6% (95% CI: 40-68) in RMS2005 and ARST0531, respectively. In RMS2005, EFS of patients with FOXO1-positive tumors was significantly inferior to those with FOXO1-negative (49.3% vs 73%, P = .034). In contrast, in ARST0531, EFS of patients with FOXO1-positive tumors was 45% compared with 43.8% for those with FOXO1-negative. CONCLUSIONS: The outcome of patients with ARMS N1 was similar in both protocols. However, patients with FOXO1 fusion-negative tumors enrolled in RMS2005 showed a significantly better outcome, suggesting that different strategies of chemotherapy may have an impact in the outcome of this subgroup of patients.

Lymphadenopathy in children: A streamlined approach for the surgeon - A report from the APSA Cancer Committee.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Lymphadenopathy is a common complaint in children. Pediatric surgeons are often called upon to evaluate, treat, and/or biopsy enlarged lymph nodes. With many nonsurgical causes in the differential diagnosis, the surgeon plays the important role of providing reassurance and timely diagnosis while minimizing the pain and morbidity associated with surgical interventions in children. The purpose of this summary paper is to provide a management guide for surgeons working up children with lymphadenopathy. MATERIALS/METHODS: The English language literature was searched for "lymphadenopathy in children". All manuscript types were considered for review, regardless of medical specialty, with emphasis placed on published guidelines, algorithms, and reviews. After thorough review of these manuscripts and cross-referencing of their bibliographies, the attached algorithm was developed, with emphasis on the role and timing of surgical intervention. RESULTS: The APSA Cancer Committee developed the attached algorithm to fill a gap in the surgical literature. It outlines lymphadenopathy workup and treatment with emphasis on the role and timing of surgical intervention. CONCLUSION: This review defines and summarizes the common etiologies and presentations of lymphadenopathy in children, and offers a straightforward algorithm for evaluation of and treatment with an emphasis on malignancy risk and surgical management. TYPE OF STUDY: Summary paper. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V.