Further evidence for an anti-inflammatory role of artesunate in experimental cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) is a clinical syndrome resulting from Plasmodium falciparum infection. A wide range of clinical manifestations follow the disease including cognitive dysfunction, seizures and coma. CM pathogenesis remains incompletely understood and without treatment this condition is invariably fatal. Artesunate has been accepted as the most effective drug for treating severe malaria. Besides its antiparasitic activity, an anti-inflammatory property has also been reported. In the current study, the immunomodulatory role of artesunate was investigated using a Plasmodium berghei ANKA model of CM, trough evaluation of behavioural changes and cytokines expression in hippocampus and in frontal cortex. METHODS: C57Bl/6 mice were infected with P. berghei by intraperitoneal route, using a standardized inoculation of 106 parasitized erythrocytes. Memory function was evaluated using the step-down inhibitory avoidance test. The mRNA expression of IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of control and infected mice on day 5 post-infection were estimated by quantitative real time PCR. Plasmodium berghei -infected mice also received intraperitoneally a single dose of artesunate (32 mg/kg) on day 4 post-infection, and 24 hours after treatment behavioural and immunological analysis were performed. The protein levels of cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IFN-γ, TNF in the serum, frontal cortex and hippocampus of controls and P. berghei -infected mice treated or not treated with artesunate were determined using a cytometric bead array (CBA) kit. The survival and neurological symptoms of CM were also registered. RESULTS: CM mice presented a significant impairment of aversive memory compared to controls on day 5 post-infection. A higher mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was found in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of infected mice. A single dose of artesunate was also able to decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of P. berghei-infected mice. In parallel, a significant improvement in neurological symptoms and survival were observed in artesunate treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, the current study provided further evidence that CM affects key brain areas related to cognition process. In addition, different patterns of cytokine expression during the course of CM could be modulated by a single administration of the anti-malarial artesunate.

Late anxiety-like behavior and neuroinflammation in mice subjected to sublethal polymicrobial sepsis.

Sepsis can lead to long-term cognitive changes, including memory and learning deficits, which are known as septic encephalopathy (SE). SE also includes behavioral changes. The underlying mechanism of SE is unknown, and several mechanisms have been proposed. This study investigated late anxiety-like behavior, serum cytokine levels and brain cytokine production in C57BL/6 mice subjected to polymicrobial sepsis induced by sublethal cecum ligature and puncture (CLP). Anxiety-like behavior and locomotor activity were assessed in mice 10 days after sham operation or CLP procedure using the elevated plus maze, contextual fear conditioning, and open field test. Brain and serum concentrations of the cytokines TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-10 were determined by ELISA. We found that mice subjected to polymicrobial sepsis presented anxiety-like behavior, which was accompanied by increased serum TNF-α and brain TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, and IL-6 levels, 10 days after the surgical procedure. These findings suggest an involvement of central nervous system inflammatory mediators in the anxiety-like symptoms found in SE.

Platelet-activating factor receptor is essential for the development of experimental cerebral malaria.

Cerebral malaria is a severe form of the disease that may result, in part, from an overt inflammatory response during infection by Plasmodium falciparum. The understanding of the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria may aid in the development of better therapeutic strategies for patients. The immune response in cerebral malaria involves elevation of circulating levels of cytokines and chemokines associated with leukocyte accumulation and breakdown of the blood-brain barrier in the central nervous system. Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a mediator of inflammation shown to orchestrate inflammatory processes, including recruitment of leukocytes and increase of vascular permeability. Using mice lacking the PAF receptor (PAFR(-/-)), we investigated the relevance of this molecule for the outcome and the neuroinflammatory process triggered by P. berghei ANKA, an experimental model of cerebral malaria. In PAFR(-/-) mice, lethality was markedly delayed and brain inflammation was significantly reduced, as demonstrated by histology, accumulation, and activation of CD8(+) T cells, changes in vascular permeability and activation of caspase-3 on endothelial cells and leukocytes. Similarly, treatment with the PAFR antagonist UK-74,505 delayed lethality. Taken together, the results suggest that PAFR signaling is crucial for the development of experimental cerebral malaria. Mechanistically, PAFR activation is crucial for the cascade of events leading to changes in vascular permeability, accumulation, and activation of CD8(+) T cells and apoptosis of leukocytes and endothelial cells.

Intracerebral infection with dengue-3 virus induces meningoencephalitis and behavioral changes that precede lethality in mice.

BACKGROUND: Dengue, one of the most important arboviral diseases of humans, may cause severe systemic disease. Although dengue virus (DENV) has been considered to be a non-neurotropic virus, dengue infection has been associated recently with a series of neurological syndromes, including encephalitis. In this work, we evaluated behavioral changes and inflammatory parameters in C57BL/6 mice infected with non-adapted dengue virus 3 (DENV-3) genotype I. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice received 4×10(3) PFU of DENV-3 by an intracranial route. We evaluated the trafficking of leukocytes in brain microvasculature using intravital microscopy, and evaluated chemokine and cytokine profiling by an ELISA test at 3 and 6 days post infection (p.i.). Furthermore, we determined myeloperoxidase activity and immune cell populations, and also performed histopathological analysis and immunostaining for the virus in brain tissue. RESULTS: All animals developed signs of encephalitis and died by day 8 p.i. Motor behavior and muscle tone and strength parameters declined at day 7 p.i. We observed increased leukocyte rolling and adhesion in brain microvasculature of infected mice at days 3 and 6 p.i. The infection was followed by significant increases in IFN-γ, TNF-α, CCL2, CCL5, CXCL1, and CXCL2. Histological analysis showed evidence of meningoencephalitis and reactive gliosis. Increased numbers of neutrophils, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were detected in brain of infected animals, notably at day 6 p.i. Cells immunoreactive for anti-NS-3 were visualized throughout the brain. CONCLUSION: Intracerebral infection with non-adapted DENV-3 induces encephalitis and behavioral changes that precede lethality in mice.

Traffic of leukocytes and cytokine up-regulation in the central nervous system in sepsis.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of sepsis on brain microvasculature leukocyte rolling and adherence, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, cytokine and chemokine concentrations, and behavioral screening 6, 12, and 24 h after sepsis induction. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice or Wistar rats underwent cecal ligation and perforation (CLP) or sham operation. At 6, 12, and 24 h after sepsis induction, intravital microscopy was performed in the mice brain microvasculature to evaluate leukocyte rolling and adherence. Animals were killed and had the brain removed to determine MPO activity and the levels of cytokines and chemokines. A behavioral screening was also performed in a separate cohort of animals. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and cytokines and chemokines were determined in different brain regions in Wistar rats. RESULTS: There was a decrease in circulating leukocyte levels at 6, 12, and 24 h, an increase in rolling and adhesion of leukocytes in the brain microvasculature, followed by an increase in brain MPO activity. In addition, there was an increase in both brain cytokines and chemokines at different times. There was a decrease in the neuropsychiatric state muscle tone and strength only at 6 h, and a decrease in the autonomous function at 6 and 12 h. The pattern of brain cytokines and chemokines, and BBB permeability between the analyzed regions seemed to be similar with minor differences. CONCLUSIONS: During sepsis the brain's production of cytokines and chemokines is an early event and it seemed to participate both in central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction and BBB permeability alterations, reinforcing the role of brain inflammatory response in the acute CNS dysfunction associated with sepsis.

Using intravital microscopy to study the role of chemokines during infection and inflammation in the central nervous system.

The interaction between a microorganism and a potential host may modify each other in multiple ways. Because of their central role in controlling leukocyte trafficking and activation, chemokines may be essential in defining these interactions. Here, we describe potential uses of intravital microscopy to define the role of chemokines and their receptors in the context of HSV-1 infection and EAE. We show that CCL5 plays a major role in driving neuropathology by mediating leukocyte adhesion and consequent migration in HSV-1 encephalitis. In contrast, CCR5 is important to attract cell types that modulate negatively CNS damage at the cost of allowing greater viral replication in the brain. Finally, intravital microscopy studies were crucial to determine that induction of leukocyte adhesion and subsequent emigration into the CNS is a major mechanism of action of CCL2 in EAE.

The chemokine receptors CXCR1/CXCR2 modulate antigen-induced arthritis by regulating adhesion of neutrophils to the synovial microvasculature.

OBJECTIVE: The chemokine receptors CXCR1 and CXCR2 play a role in mediating neutrophil recruitment and neutrophil-dependent injury in several models of inflammation. We undertook this study to investigate the role of these receptors in mediating neutrophil adhesion, subsequent migration, and neutrophil-dependent hypernociception in a murine model of monarticular antigen-induced arthritis (AIA). METHODS: AIA was induced by administration of antigen into the knee joint of previously immunized mice. Intravital microscopy studies were performed to assess leukocyte rolling and adhesion. Mechanical hypernociception was investigated using an electronic pressure meter. Neutrophil accumulation in the tissue was measured by counting neutrophils in the synovial cavity and assaying myeloperoxidase activity. Levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and the chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL2 were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Histologic analysis was performed to evaluate the severity of arthritis and leukocyte infiltration. RESULTS: Antigen challenge in immunized mice induced production of TNFalpha, CXCL1, and CXCL2 and also resulted in neutrophil recruitment, leukocyte rolling and adhesion, and hypernociception. Treatment with reparixin or DF2162 (allosteric inhibitors of CXCR1/CXCR2) decreased neutrophil recruitment, an effect that was associated with marked inhibition of neutrophil adhesion. Drug treatment also inhibited TNFalpha production, hypernociception, and the overall severity of the disease in the tissue. CONCLUSION: Blockade of CXCR1/CXCR2 receptors inhibits neutrophil recruitment by inhibiting the adhesion of neutrophils to synovial microvessels. As a consequence, there is decreased local cytokine production and reduced hypernociception, as well as ameloriation of overall disease in the tissue. These studies suggest a potential therapeutic role for the modulation of CXCR1/CXCR2 receptor signaling in the treatment of arthritis.

Genistein down-modulates pro-inflammatory cytokines and reverses clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common non-traumatic, disabling neurological human inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) models MS and is characterized as a CD4+ T-helper type 1 (Th1) cell-mediated autoimmune disease. It is characterized by an influx of activated leukocytes into the CNS. Genistein, occurring abundantly in soy products, has apoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present report, we investigated the use of genistein for the treatment of the murine model of MS. After induction of EAE with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35-55 peptide (MOG(35-55)), we observed that genistein treatment ameliorated significantly the clinical symptoms, modulating pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, we analyzed the leukocyte rolling and adherence in the CNS by performing intravital microscopy. Genistein treatment resulted in decreased rolling and adhering of leukocytes as compared to the untreated group. Our data suggest that genistein might be a potential therapy for MS.

An engineered monomer of CCL2 has anti-inflammatory properties emphasizing the importance of oligomerization for chemokine activity in vivo.

We demonstrated recently that P8A-CCL2, a monomeric variant of the chemokine CCL2/MCP-1, is unable to induce cellular recruitment in vivo, despite full activity in vitro. Here, we show that this variant is able to inhibit CCL2 and thioglycollate-mediated recruitment of leukocytes into the peritoneal cavity and recruitment of cells into lungs of OVA-sensitized mice. This anti-inflammatory activity translated into a reduction of clinical score in the more complex inflammatory model of murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Several hypotheses for the mechanism of action of P8A-CCL2 were tested. Plasma exposure following s.c. injection is similar for P8A-CCL2 and wild-type (WT) CCL2, ruling out the hypothesis that P8A-CCL2 disrupts the chemokine gradient through systemic exposure. P8A-CCL2 and WT induce CCR2 internalization in vitro and in vivo; CCR2 then recycles to the cell surface, but the cells remain refractory to chemotaxis in vitro for several hours. Although the response to P8A-CCL2 is similar to WT, this finding is novel and suggests that despite the presence of the receptor on the cell surface, coupling to the signaling machinery is retarded. In contrast to CCL2, P8A-CCL2 does not oligomerize on glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). However, it retains the ability to bind GAGs and displaces endogenous JE (murine MCP-1) from endothelial surfaces. Intravital microscopy studies indicate that P8A-CCL2 prevents leukocyte adhesion, while CCL2 has no effect, and this phenomenon may be related to the mechanism. These results suggest that oligomerization-deficient chemokines can exhibit anti-inflammatory properties in vivo and may represent new therapeutic modalities.