A review of the natural enemies of the red palm mite, Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae).

A review of all the available information about the natural enemies reported in association with the red palm mite, Raoiella indica is presented. Twenty-eight species of predatory arthropods, including mites and insects, have been reported in association with R. indica in Asia, Africa and the Neotropics. In addition, pathogenic fungi associated with R. indica in the Caribbean have been reported. The available literature indicates that each site has a different natural enemy complex with only one predator species, Amblyseius largoensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae), present in all the geographical areas. The phytoseiids, Amblyseius caudatus Berlese, Amblyseius channabasavanni Gupta and A. largoensis, were regarded as important natural enemies of R. indica, and their predatory efficiency was studied in some detail. Among the predatory insects the coccinellids Stethorus keralicus Kapur and Telsimia ephippiger Chapin were reported as major predators of R. indica. The known distribution, abundance and relative importance of each species reported in association with R. indica are discussed.

Brevipalpus californicus, B. obovatus, B. phoenicis, and B. lewisi (Acari: Tenuipalpidae): a review of their biology, feeding injury and economic importance.

The genus Brevipalpus includes most of the economically important species of Tenuipalpidae. Many Brevipalpus species reproduce by theletokous parthenogenesis while other species reproduce by male fertilization of female eggs. Previous researchers have determined that Brevipalpus californicus (Banks), B. obovatus Donnadieu, and B. phoenicis (Geijskes) females were haploid with two chromosomes. The life cycle and developmental times for these three species are reviewed. Longevity of each Brevipalpus species is two to three times greater than corresponding longevities of various tetranychid mites. Brevipalpus mites inject toxic saliva into fruits, leaves, stems, twigs, and bud tissues of numerous plants including citrus. Feeding injury symptoms on selected plants include: chlorosis, blistering, bronzing, or necrotic areas on leaves by one or more Brevipalpus mites. Premature leaf drop occurred on 'Robinson' tangerine leaves in Florida (USA). Leaf drop was observed in several sweet orange and grapefruit orchards in Texas (USA) that were heavily infested with Brevipalpus mites feeding on the twigs, leaves, and fruit. Initial circular chlorotic areas appear on both sweet orange and grapefruit varieties in association with developing populations of Brevipalpus mites in Texas. These feeding sites become progressively necrotic, darker in color, and eventually develop into irregular scab-like lesions on affected fruit. Russeting and cracking of the fruits of other plant hosts are reported. Stunting of leaves and the development of Brevipalpus galls on terminal buds were recorded on sour orange, Citrus aurantium L., seedlings heavily infested with B. californicus in an insectary. The most significant threat posed by these mites is as vectors of a potentially invasive viral disease called citrus leprosis.

Host plants of Brevipalpus californicus, B. obovatus, and B. phoenicis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) and their potential involvement in the spread of viral diseases vectored by these mites.

The family Tenuipalpidae has over 622 species in 30 genera described worldwide. A total of 928 plant species in 513 genera within 139 families are recorded hosts of one or more of the following species: Brevipalpus californicus (Banks), B. obovatus Donnadieu, and B. phoenicis (Geijskes). B. californicus has 316 plant species reported as hosts compared with 451 and 486 host plants for B. obovatus and B. phoenicis, respectively. There are 67 genera of plants within 33 families that are reported hosts of only B. californicus, 119 genera within 55 plant families that are hosts of only B. obovatus, and 118 genera of plants within 64 families that are hosts of only B. phoenicis. There are 14 genera of plants within 12 families that are hosts to both B. californicus and B. obovatus, while there are 40 genera of host plants within 26 families that are hosts for both B. californicus and B. phoenicis. A total of 70 genera of host plants within 39 families have been reported as hosts of both B. obovatus and B. phoenicis, while 77 genera of plants within 44 families have been reported as hosts of all three Brevipalpus species. Geographical differences in the three species of Brevipalpus identified on different plant species within the same genus are common.