Regulation of metabolic health by dietary histidine in mice.

Low-protein (LP) diets are associated with a decreased risk of diabetes in humans, and promote leanness and glycaemic control in both rodents and humans. While the effects of an LP diet on glycaemic control are mediated by reduced levels of the branched-chain amino acids, we have observed that reducing dietary levels of the other six essential amino acids leads to changes in body composition. Here, we find that dietary histidine plays a key role in the response to an LP diet in male C57BL/6J mice. Specifically reducing dietary levels of histidine by 67% reduces the weight gain of young, lean male mice, reducing both adipose and lean mass without altering glucose metabolism, and rapidly reverses diet-induced obesity and hepatic steatosis in diet-induced obese male mice, increasing insulin sensitivity. This normalization of metabolic health was associated not with caloric restriction or increased activity, but with increased energy expenditure. Surprisingly, the effects of histidine restriction do not require the energy balance hormone Fgf21. Histidine restriction that was started in midlife promoted leanness and glucose tolerance in aged males but not females, but did not affect frailty or lifespan in either sex. Finally, we demonstrate that variation in dietary histidine levels helps to explain body mass index differences in humans. Overall, our findings demonstrate that dietary histidine is a key regulator of weight and body composition in male mice and in humans, and suggest that reducing dietary histidine may be a translatable option for the treatment of obesity. KEY POINTS: Protein restriction (PR) promotes metabolic health in rodents and humans and extends rodent lifespan. Restriction of specific individual essential amino acids can recapitulate the benefits of PR. Reduced histidine promotes leanness and increased energy expenditure in male mice. Reduced histidine does not extend the lifespan of mice when begun in midlife. Dietary levels of histidine are positively associated with body mass index in humans.

The adverse metabolic effects of branched-chain amino acids are mediated by isoleucine and valine.

Low-protein diets promote metabolic health in rodents and humans, and the benefits of low-protein diets are recapitulated by specifically reducing dietary levels of the three branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Here, we demonstrate that each BCAA has distinct metabolic effects. A low isoleucine diet reprograms liver and adipose metabolism, increasing hepatic insulin sensitivity and ketogenesis and increasing energy expenditure, activating the FGF21-UCP1 axis. Reducing valine induces similar but more modest metabolic effects, whereas these effects are absent with low leucine. Reducing isoleucine or valine rapidly restores metabolic health to diet-induced obese mice. Finally, we demonstrate that variation in dietary isoleucine levels helps explain body mass index differences in humans. Our results reveal isoleucine as a key regulator of metabolic health and the adverse metabolic response to dietary BCAAs and suggest reducing dietary isoleucine as a new approach to treating and preventing obesity and diabetes.

Peripheral Mechanisms Mediating the Sustained Antidiabetic Action of FGF1 in the Brain.

We recently reported that in rodent models of type 2 diabetes (T2D), a single intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1) induces remission of hyperglycemia that is sustained for weeks. To clarify the peripheral mechanisms underlying this effect, we used the Zucker diabetic fatty fa/fa rat model of T2D, which, like human T2D, is characterized by progressive deterioration of pancreatic ß-cell function after hyperglycemia onset. We report that although icv FGF1 injection delays the onset of ß-cell dysfunction in these animals, it has no effect on either glucose-induced insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity. These observations suggest that FGF1 acts in the brain to stimulate insulin-independent glucose clearance. On the basis of our finding that icv FGF1 treatment increases hepatic glucokinase gene expression, we considered the possibility that increased hepatic glucose uptake (HGU) contributes to the insulin-independent glucose-lowering effect of icv FGF1. Consistent with this possibility, we report that icv FGF1 injection increases liver glucokinase activity by approximately twofold. We conclude that sustained remission of hyperglycemia induced by the central action of FGF1 involves both preservation of ß-cell function and stimulation of HGU through increased hepatic glucokinase activity.

The Effect of Diet-induced Obesity on Toxicological Parameters in the Polygenic Sprague-Dawley Rat Model.

The obese rodent serves as an indispensable tool for proof-of-concept efficacy and mode-of-action pharmacology studies. Yet the utility of this disease model as an adjunct to the conventional healthy animal in the nonclinical safety evaluation of anti-obesity pharmacotherapies has not been elucidated. Regulatory authorities have recommended employing disease models in toxicology studies when necessary. Our study investigated standard and exploratory toxicology parameters in the high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese, polygenic Sprague-Dawley rat model in comparison to chow diet (CD)-fed controls. We sought to establish feasibility of the model for safety testing and relevance to human obesity pathophysiology. We report that both sexes fed a 45% kcal HFD for 29 weeks developed obesity and metabolic derangements that mimics to a certain extent, common human obesity. Minor clinical pathologies were observed in both sexes and considered related to CD versus HFD differences. Histopathologically, both sexes exhibited mild obesity-associated findings in brown and subcutaneous white fat, bone, kidneys, liver, lung, pancreas, salivary parotid glands, and skeletal muscle. We conclude that chronic HFD feeding in both sexes led to the development of an obese but otherwise healthy rat. Therefore, the diet-induced obese Sprague-Dawley rat may serve as a suitable model for evaluating toxicity findings encountered with anti-obesity compounds.

Evidence That the Sympathetic Nervous System Elicits Rapid, Coordinated, and Reciprocal Adjustments of Insulin Secretion and Insulin Sensitivity During Cold Exposure.

Dynamic adjustment of insulin secretion to compensate for changes of insulin sensitivity that result from alteration of nutritional or metabolic status is a fundamental aspect of glucose homeostasis. To investigate the role of the brain in this coupling process, we used cold exposure as an experimental paradigm because the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) helps to coordinate the major shifts of tissue glucose utilization needed to ensure that increased thermogenic needs are met. We found that glucose-induced insulin secretion declined by 50% in rats housed at 5°C for 28 h, and yet, glucose tolerance did not change, owing to a doubling of insulin sensitivity. These potent effects on insulin secretion and sensitivity were fully reversed by returning animals to room temperature (22°C) for 4 h or by intravenous infusion of the α-adrenergic receptor antagonist phentolamine for only 30 min. By comparison, insulin clearance was not affected by cold exposure or phentolamine infusion. These findings offer direct evidence of a key role for the brain, acting via the SNS, in the rapid, highly coordinated, and reciprocal changes of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity that preserve glucose homeostasis in the setting of cold exposure.

Central injection of fibroblast growth factor 1 induces sustained remission of diabetic hyperglycemia in rodents.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is among the most common and costly disorders worldwide. The goal of current medical management for T2D is to transiently ameliorate hyperglycemia through daily dosing of one or more antidiabetic drugs. Hypoglycemia and weight gain are common side effects of therapy, and sustained disease remission is not obtainable with nonsurgical approaches. On the basis of the potent glucose-lowering response elicited by activation of brain fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptors, we explored the antidiabetic efficacy of centrally administered FGF1, which, unlike other FGF peptides, activates all FGF receptor subtypes. We report that a single intracerebroventricular injection of FGF1 at a dose one-tenth of that needed for antidiabetic efficacy following peripheral injection induces sustained diabetes remission in both mouse and rat models of T2D. This antidiabetic effect is not secondary to weight loss, does not increase the risk of hypoglycemia, and involves a novel and incompletely understood mechanism for increasing glucose clearance from the bloodstream. We conclude that the brain has an inherent potential to induce diabetes remission and that brain FGF receptors are potential pharmacological targets for achieving this goal.

Glucose intolerance induced by blockade of central FGF receptors is linked to an acute stress response.

OBJECTIVE: Central administration of ligands for fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) such as fibroblast growth factor-19 (FGF19) and FGF21 exert glucose-lowering effects in rodent models of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Conversely, intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of the non-selective FGFR inhibitor (FGFRi) PD173074 causes glucose intolerance, implying a physiological role for neuronal FGFR signaling in glucose homeostasis. The current studies were undertaken to identify neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying the glucose intolerance induced by pharmacological blockade of central FGFRs. METHODS: Overnight fasted, lean, male, Long-Evans rats received icv injections of either PD173074 or vehicle (Veh) followed 30 min later by performance of a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (FSIGT). Minimal model analysis of glucose and insulin data from the FSIGT was performed to estimate insulin-dependent and insulin-independent components of glucose disposal. Plasma levels of lactate, glucagon, corticosterone, non-esterified free fatty acids (NEFA) and catecholamines were measured before and after intravenous (iv) glucose injection. RESULTS: Within 20 min of icv PD173074 injection (prior to the FSIGT), plasma levels of lactate, norepinephrine and epinephrine increased markedly, and each returned to baseline rapidly (within 8 min) following the iv glucose bolus. In contrast, plasma glucagon levels were not altered by icv FGFRi at either time point. Consistent with a previous report, glucose tolerance was impaired following icv PD173074 compared to Veh injection and, based on minimal model analysis of FSIGT data, this effect was attributable to reductions of both insulin secretion and the basal insulin effect (BIE), consistent with the inhibitory effect of catecholamines on pancreatic ß-cell secretion. By comparison, there were no changes in glucose effectiveness at zero insulin (GEZI) or the insulin sensitivity index (SI). To determine if iv glucose (given during the FSIGT) contributed to the rapid resolution of the sympathoadrenal response induced by icv FGFRi, we performed an additional study comparing groups that received iv saline or iv glucose 30 min after icv FGFRi. Our finding that elevated plasma catecholamine levels returned rapidly to baseline irrespective of whether rats subsequently received an iv bolus of saline or glucose indicates that the rapid reversal of sympathoadrenal activation following icv FGFRi was unrelated to the subsequent glucose bolus. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of acute inhibition of central FGFR signaling to impair glucose tolerance likely involves a stress response associated with pronounced, but transient, sympathoadrenal activation and an associated reduction of insulin secretion. Whether this effect is a true consequence of FGFR blockade or involves an off-target effect of the FGFR inhibitor requires additional study.

Central nervous system neuropeptide Y regulates mediators of hepatic phospholipid remodeling and very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride secretion via sympathetic innervation.

OBJECTIVE: Elevated very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)-triglyceride (TG) secretion from the liver contributes to an atherogenic dyslipidemia that is associated with obesity, diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. Numerous models of obesity and diabetes are characterized by increased central nervous system (CNS) neuropeptide Y (NPY); in fact, a single intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of NPY in lean fasted rats elevates hepatic VLDL-TG secretion and does so, in large part, via signaling through the CNS NPY Y1 receptor. Thus, our overarching hypothesis is that elevated CNS NPY action contributes to dyslipidemia by activating central circuits that modulate liver lipid metabolism. METHODS: Chow-fed Zucker fatty (ZF) rats were pair-fed by matching their caloric intake to that of lean controls and effects on body weight, plasma TG, and liver content of TG and phospholipid (PL) were compared to ad-libitum (ad-lib) fed ZF rats. Additionally, lean 4-h fasted rats with intact or disrupted hepatic sympathetic innervation were treated with icv NPY or NPY Y1 receptor agonist to identify novel hepatic mechanisms by which NPY promotes VLDL particle maturation and secretion. RESULTS: Manipulation of plasma TG levels in obese ZF rats, through pair-feeding had no effect on liver TG content; however, hepatic PL content was substantially reduced and was tightly correlated with plasma TG levels. Treatment with icv NPY or a selective NPY Y1 receptor agonist in lean fasted rats robustly activated key hepatic regulatory proteins, stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1), ADP-ribosylation factor-1 (ARF-1), and lipin-1, known to be involved in remodeling liver PL into TG for VLDL maturation and secretion. Lastly, we show that the effects of CNS NPY on key liporegulatory proteins are attenuated by hepatic sympathetic denervation. CONCLUSIONS: These data support a model in which CNS NPY modulates mediators of hepatic PL remodeling and VLDL maturation to stimulate VLDL-TG secretion that is dependent on the Y1 receptor and sympathetic signaling to the liver.

Central nervous system neuropeptide Y signaling via the Y1 receptor partially dissociates feeding behavior from lipoprotein metabolism in lean rats.

Elevated plasma triglyceride (TG) levels contribute to an atherogenic dyslipidemia that is associated with obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Numerous models of obesity are characterized by increased central nervous system (CNS) neuropeptide Y (NPY) tone that contributes to excess food intake and obesity. Previously, we demonstrated that intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of NPY in lean fasted rats also elevates hepatic production of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)-TG. Thus, we hypothesize that elevated CNS NPY action contributes to not only the pathogenesis of obesity but also dyslipidemia. Here, we sought to determine whether the effects of NPY on feeding and/or obesity are dissociable from effects on hepatic VLDL-TG secretion. Pair-fed, icv NPY-treated, chow-fed Long-Evans rats develop hypertriglyceridemia in the absence of increased food intake and body fat accumulation compared with vehicle-treated controls. We then modulated CNS NPY signaling by icv injection of selective NPY receptor agonists and found that Y1, Y2, Y4, and Y5 receptor agonists all induced hyperphagia in lean, ad libitum chow-fed Long-Evans rats, with the Y2 receptor agonist having the most pronounced effect. Next, we found that at equipotent doses for food intake NPY Y1 receptor agonist had the most robust effect on VLDL-TG secretion, a Y2 receptor agonist had a modest effect, and no effect was observed for Y4 and Y5 receptor agonists. These findings, using selective agonists, suggest the possibility that the effect of CNS NPY signaling on hepatic VLDL-TG secretion may be relatively dissociable from effects on feeding behavior via the Y1 receptor.