Brain effects of gestating germ-free persist in mouse neonates despite acquisition of a microbiota at birth.

At birth, mammals experience a massive colonization by microorganisms. We previously reported that newborn mice gestated and born germ-free (GF) have increased microglial labeling and alterations in developmental neuronal cell death in the hippocampus and hypothalamus, as well as greater forebrain volume and body weight when compared to conventionally colonized (CC) mice. To test whether these effects are solely due to differences in postnatal microbial exposure, or instead may be programmed in utero, we cross-fostered GF newborns immediately after birth to CC dams (GF→CC) and compared them to offspring fostered within the same microbiota status (CC→CC, GF→GF). Because key developmental events (including microglial colonization and neuronal cell death) shape the brain during the first postnatal week, we collected brains on postnatal day (P) 7. To track gut bacterial colonization, colonic content was also collected and subjected to 16S rRNA qPCR and Illumina sequencing. In the brains of GF→GF mice, we replicated most of the effects seen previously in GF mice. Interestingly, the GF brain phenotype persisted in GF→CC offspring for almost all measures. In contrast, total bacterial load did not differ between the CC→CC and GF→CC groups on P7, and bacterial community composition was also very similar, with a few exceptions. Thus, GF→CC offspring had altered brain development during at least the first 7 days after birth despite a largely normal microbiota. This suggests that prenatal influences of gestating in an altered microbial environment programs neonatal brain development.

First Encounters: Effects of the Microbiota on Neonatal Brain Development.

The microbiota plays important roles in host metabolism and immunity, and its disruption affects adult brain physiology and behavior. Although such findings have been attributed to altered neurodevelopment, few studies have actually examined microbiota effects on the developing brain. This review focuses on developmental effects of the earliest exposure to microbes. At birth, the mammalian fetus enters a world teeming with microbes which colonize all body sites in contact with the environment. Bacteria reach the gut within a few hours of birth and cause a measurable response in the intestinal epithelium. In adults, the gut microbiota signals to the brain via the vagus nerve, bacterial metabolites, hormones, and immune signaling, and work in perinatal rodents is beginning to elucidate which of these signaling pathways herald the very first encounter with gut microbes in the neonate. Neural effects of the microbiota during the first few days of life include changes in neuronal cell death, microglia, and brain cytokine levels. In addition to these effects of direct exposure of the newborn to microbes, accumulating evidence points to a role for the maternal microbiota in affecting brain development via bacterial molecules and metabolites while the offspring is still in utero. Hence, perturbations to microbial exposure perinatally, such as through C-section delivery or antibiotic treatment, alter microbiota colonization and may have long-term neural consequences. The perinatal period is critical for brain development and a close look at microbiota effects during this time promises to reveal the earliest, most primary effects of the microbiota on neurodevelopment.

Ingestion of probiotic (Lactobacillus helveticus and Bifidobacterium longum) alters intestinal microbial structure and behavioral expression following social defeat stress.

Social stress exacerbates anxious and depressive behaviors in humans. Similarly, anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors are triggered by social stress in a variety of non-human animals. Here, we tested whether oral administration of the putative anxiolytic probiotic strains Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175 reduces the striking increase in anxiety-like behavior and changes in gut microbiota observed following social defeat stress in Syrian hamsters. We administered the probiotic at two different doses for 21 days, and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing revealed a shift in microbial structure following probiotic administration at both doses, independently of stress. Probiotic administration at either dose increased anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 compared to placebo. Surprisingly, probiotic administration at the low dose, equivalent to the one used in humans, significantly increased social avoidance and decreased social interaction. This behavioral change was associated with a reduction in microbial richness in this group. Together, these results demonstrate that probiotic administration alters gut microbial composition and may promote an anti-inflammatory profile but that these changes may not promote reductions in behavioral responses to social stress.