Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard phenotypes of endogenous psychoses: a review of their validity
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While the ICD-DSM paradigm has been a major advance in clinical psychiatry, its usefulness for biological psychiatry is debated. By defining consensus-based disorders rather than empirically driven phenotypes, consensus classifications were not an implementation of the biomedical paradigm. In the field of endogenous psychoses, the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard (WKL) pathway has optimized the descriptions of 35 major phenotypes using common medical heuristics on lifelong diachronic observations. Regarding their construct validity, WKL phenotypes have good reliability and predictive and face validity. WKL phenotypes come with remarkable evidence for differential validity on age of onset, familiality, pregnancy complications, precipitating factors, and treatment response. Most impressive is the replicated separation of high- and low-familiality phenotypes. Created in the purest tradition of the biomedical paradigm, the WKL phenotypes deserve to be contrasted as credible alternatives with other approaches currently under discussion.
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Multi-parametric quantitative MRI reveals three different white matter subtypes.

INTRODUCTION: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows slight spatial variations in brain white matter (WM). We used quantitative multi-parametric MRI to evaluate in what respect these inhomogeneities could correspond to WM subtypes with specific characteristics and spatial distribution. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-six controls (12 women, 38 ±9 Y) took part in a 60-min session on a 3T scanner measuring 7 parameters: R1 and R2, diffusion tensor imaging which allowed to measure Axial and Radial Diffusivity (AD, RD), magnetization transfer imaging which enabled to compute the Macromolecular Proton Fraction (MPF), and a susceptibility-weighted sequence which permitted to quantify R2* and magnetic susceptibility (χm). Spatial independent component analysis was used to identify WM subtypes with specific combination of quantitative parameters values. RESULTS: Three subtypes could be identified. t-WM (track) mostly mapped on well-formed projection and commissural tracts and came with high AD values (all p < 10(-18)). The two other subtypes were located in subcortical WM and overlapped with association fibers: f-WM (frontal) was mostly anterior in the frontal lobe whereas c-WM (central) was underneath the central cortex. f-WM and c-WM had higher MPF values, indicating a higher myelin content (all p < 1.7 10(-6)). This was compatible with their larger χm and R2, as iron is essentially stored in oligodendrocytes (all p < 0.01). Although R1 essentially showed the same, its higher value in t-WM relative to c-WM might be related to its higher cholesterol concentration. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, f- and c-WMs were less structured, but more myelinated and probably more metabolically active regarding to their iron content than WM related to fasciculi (t-WM). As known WM bundles passed though different WM subtypes, myelination might not be uniform along the axons but rather follow a spatially consistent regional variability. Future studies might examine the reproducibility of this decomposition and how development and pathology differently affect each subtype.

fMRI capture of auditory hallucinations: Validation of the two-steps method.

Our purpose was to validate a reliable method to capture brain activity concomitant with hallucinatory events, which constitute frequent and disabling experiences in schizophrenia. Capturing hallucinations using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) remains very challenging. We previously developed a method based on a two-steps strategy including (1) multivariate data-driven analysis of per-hallucinatory fMRI recording and (2) selection of the components of interest based on a post-fMRI interview. However, two tests still need to be conducted to rule out critical pitfalls of conventional fMRI capture methods before this two-steps strategy can be adopted in hallucination research: replication of these findings on an independent sample and assessment of the reliability of the hallucination-related patterns at the subject level. To do so, we recruited a sample of 45 schizophrenia patients suffering from frequent hallucinations, 20 schizophrenia patients without hallucinations and 20 matched healthy volunteers; all participants underwent four different experiments. The main findings are (1) high accuracy in reporting unexpected sensory stimuli in an MRI setting; (2) good detection concordance between hypothesis-driven and data-driven analysis methods (as used in the two-steps strategy) when controlled unexpected sensory stimuli are presented; (3) good agreement of the two-steps method with the online button-press approach to capture hallucinatory events; (4) high spatial consistency of hallucinatory-related networks detected using the two-steps method on two independent samples. By validating the two-steps method, we advance toward the possible transfer of such technology to new image-based therapies for hallucinations. Hum Brain Mapp 38:4966-4979, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.