Correction: 15-keto-prostaglandin E2 activates host peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) to promote Cryptococcus neoformans growth during infection.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007597.].

Examining the Role of Nuclear Receptors During In Vivo Chemical-Mediated Breast Tumorigenesis.

The chemical carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) has been used for many decades to induce skin, mammary, and ovarian tumors in mice. There are however a wide range of doses and treatment regimens in the literature that sometimes confound comparative interpretations of different studies. Here we describe a proven method to generate in vivo DMBA-mediated murine mammary tumors to enable consistent studies of the cell targeted role of genes of interest during this process.

15-keto-prostaglandin E2 activates host peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) to promote Cryptococcus neoformans growth during infection.

Cryptococcus neoformans is one of the leading causes of invasive fungal infection in humans worldwide. C. neoformans uses macrophages as a proliferative niche to increase infective burden and avoid immune surveillance. However, the specific mechanisms by which C. neoformans manipulates host immunity to promote its growth during infection remain ill-defined. Here we demonstrate that eicosanoid lipid mediators manipulated and/or produced by C. neoformans play a key role in regulating pathogenesis. C. neoformans is known to secrete several eicosanoids that are highly similar to those found in vertebrate hosts. Using eicosanoid deficient cryptococcal mutants Δplb1 and Δlac1, we demonstrate that prostaglandin E2 is required by C. neoformans for proliferation within macrophages and in vivo during infection. Genetic and pharmacological disruption of host PGE2 synthesis is not required for promotion of cryptococcal growth by eicosanoid production. We find that PGE2 must be dehydrogenated into 15-keto-PGE2 to promote fungal growth, a finding that implicated the host nuclear receptor PPAR-γ. C. neoformans infection of macrophages activates host PPAR-γ and its inhibition is sufficient to abrogate the effect of 15-keto-PGE2 in promoting fungal growth during infection. Thus, we describe the first mechanism of reliance on pathogen-derived eicosanoids in fungal pathogenesis and the specific role of 15-keto-PGE2 and host PPAR-γ in cryptococcosis.

Endothelial Cell-Targeted Deletion of PPARγ Blocks Rosiglitazone-Induced Plasma Volume Expansion and Vascular Remodeling in Adipose Tissue.

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) agonists that represent an effective class of insulin-sensitizing agents; however, clinical use is associated with weight gain and peripheral edema. To elucidate the role of PPARγ expression in endothelial cells (ECs) in these side effects, EC-targeted PPARγ knockout (Pparg ΔEC) mice were placed on a high-fat diet to promote PPARγ agonist-induced plasma volume expansion, and then treated with the TZD rosiglitazone. Compared with Pparg-floxed wild-type control (Pparg f/f) mice, Pparg ΔEC treated with rosiglitazone are resistant to an increase in extracellular fluid, water content in epididymal and inguinal white adipose tissue, and plasma volume expansion. Interestingly, histologic assessment confirmed significant rosiglitazone-mediated capillary dilation within white adipose tissue of Pparg f/f mice, but not Pparg ΔEC mice. Analysis of ECs isolated from untreated mice in both strains suggested the involvement of changes in endothelial junction formation. Specifically, compared with cells from Pparg f/f mice, Pparg ΔEC cells had a 15-fold increase in focal adhesion kinase, critically important in EC focal adhesions, and >3-fold significant increase in vascular endothelial cadherin, the main component of focal adhesions. Together, these results indicate that rosiglitazone has direct effects on the endothelium via PPARγ activation and point toward a critical role for PPARγ in ECs during rosiglitazone-mediated plasma volume expansion.

Opposing roles for mammary epithelial-specific PPARγ signaling and activation during breast tumour progression.

BACKGROUND: Among women worldwide, breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer, and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Improved understanding of breast tumourigenesis may facilitate the development of more effective therapies. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ is a transcription factor that regulates genes involved in insulin sensitivity and adipogenesis. Previously, we showed, using 7,12-dimethylbenz [a] anthracene (DMBA)-treated haploinsufficient PPARγ mice, that PPARγ suppresses breast tumour progression; however, the PPARγ expressing cell types and mechanisms involved remain to be clarified. Here, the role of PPARγ expression and activation in mammary epithelial cells (MG) with respect to DMBA-mediated breast tumourigenesis was investigated. METHODS: PPARγ MG knockout (PPARγ-MG KO) mice and their congenic, wild-type controls (PPARγ-WT) were treated once a week for six weeks by oral gavage with 1 mg DMBA dissolved in corn oil and maintained on a normal chow diet. At week 7, mice were randomly divided into those maintained on a normal chow diet (DMBA Only; PPARγ-WT: n = 25 and PPARγ-MG KO: n = 39) or those receiving a diet supplemented with the PPARγ ligand, rosiglitazone (ROSI, 4 mg/kg/day) (DMBA + ROSI; PPARγ-WT: n = 34 and PPARγ-MG KO: n = 17) for the duration of the 25-week study. RESULTS: Compared to DMBA Only-treated PPARγ-WTs, both breast tumour susceptibility and serum levels of proinflammatory and chemotactic cytokines, namely IL-4, eotaxin, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, and MIP-1α, were decreased among PPARγ-MG KOs. Cotreatment with ROSI significantly reduced breast tumour progression among PPARγ-WTs, correlating with increased BRCA1 and decreased VEGF and COX-2 protein expression levels in breast tumours; whereas, surprisingly DMBA + ROSI-treated PPARγ-MG KOs showed increased breast tumourigenesis, correlating with activation of COX-2. CONCLUSION: These novel data suggest MG-specific PPARγ expression and signaling is critical during breast tumourigenesis, and may serve as a strong candidate predictive biomarker for response of breast cancer patients to the use of therapeutic strategies that include PPARγ ligands.

Loss of PPARγ expression in mammary secretory epithelial cells creates a pro-breast tumorigenic environment.

Breast cancer is the leading cause of new cancer diagnoses among women. Using peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ((+/-)) mice, we showed normal expression of PPARγ was critical to stop 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced breast tumorigenesis. PPARγ is expressed in many breast cell types including mammary secretory epithelial (MSE) cells. MSEs proliferate as required during pregnancy, and undergo apoptosis or reversible transdifferentiation during involution once lactation is complete. Thus, MSE-specific loss of PPARγ was hypothesized to enhance DMBA-mediated breast tumorigenesis. To test this, MSE cell-specific PPARγ knockout (PPARγ-MSE KO) and control (PPARγ-WT) mice were generated, mated and allowed to nurse for three days. One week after involution, dams were treated with DMBA to initiate breast tumors, and randomized on week 7 to continue receiving a normal chow diet (DMBA Only: PPARγ-WT, n = 15; PPARγ-MSE KO, n = 25) or one supplemented with a PPARγ activating drug (DMBA + ROSI: PPARγ-WT, n = 17; PPARγ-MSE KO, n = 24), and monitored for changes in breast tumor outcomes. PPARγ-MSE KOs had significantly lower overall survival and decreased mammary tumor latency as compared to PPARγ-WT controls. PPARγ activation significantly reduced DMBA-mediated malignant mammary tumor volumes irrespective of genotype. MSE-specific PPARγ loss resulted in decreased mammary gland expression of PTEN and Bax, increased superoxide anion production, and elevated serum eotaxin and RANTES, creating a protumorigenic environment. Moreover, PPARγ activation in MSEs delayed mammary tumor growth in part by down-regulating Cox-1, Cox-2 and cyclin D1. Collectively, these studies highlight a protective role of MSE-specific PPARγ during breast tumorigenesis, and support a novel chemotherapeutic role of PPARγ activation in breast cancer.

Stromal adipocyte PPARγ protects against breast tumorigenesis.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ regulates the expression of genes essential for fat storage, primarily through its activity in adipocytes. It also has a role in carcinogenesis. PPARγ normally stops the in vivo progression of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-mediated breast tumours as revealed with PPARγ haploinsufficient mice. Since many cell types associated with the mammary gland express PPARγ, each with unique signal patterns, this study aimed to define which tissues are required for PPARγ-dependent antitumour effects. Accordingly, adipocyte-specific PPARγ knockout (PPARγ-A KO) mice and their wild-type (PPARγ-WT) controls were generated, and treated with DMBA for 6 weeks to initiate breast tumorigenesis. On week 7, mice were randomized to continue on normal chow diet or one supplemented with rosiglitazone (ROSI), and followed for 25 weeks for tumour outcomes. In PPARγ-A KO versus PPARγ-WT mice, malignant mammary tumour incidence was significantly higher and mammary tumour latency was decreased. DMBA + ROSI treatment reduced average mammary tumour volumes by 50%. Gene expression analyses of mammary glands by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunofluorescence indicated that untreated PPARγ-A KOs had significantly decreased BRCA1 expression in mammary stromal adipocytes. Compared with PPARγ-WT mice, serum leptin levels in PPARγ-A KOs were also significantly higher throughout the study. Together, these data are the first to suggest that in vivo PPARγ expression in mammary stromal adipocytes attenuates breast tumorigenesis through BRCA1 upregulation and decreased leptin secretion. This study supports a protective effect of activating PPARγ as a novel chemopreventive therapy for breast cancer.