FepR as a Central Genetic Target in the Adaptation to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds and Cross-Resistance to Ciprofloxacin in Listeria monocytogenes.

The foodborne pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes, (Lm), frequently undergoes selection pressure associated with the extensive use of disinfectants, such as quaternary ammonium compounds, which are widely used in food processing plants. The repeated exposure to sub-inhibitory biocide concentrations can induce increased tolerance to these compounds, but can also trigger the development of antibiotic resistance, and both increase the risk of food contamination and persistence in food production environments. Although the acquisition of genes can explain biocide tolerance, the genetic mechanisms underlying the adaptive cross-resistance to antibiotics remain unclear. We previously showed that repeated exposure to benzalkonium chloride (BC) and didecyldimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC) led to reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin in Lm strains from diverse sources. Here, we compared the genomes of 16 biocide-adapted and 10 parental strains to identify the molecular mechanisms of fluoroquinolone cross-resistance. A core genome SNP analysis identified various mutations in the transcriptional regulator fepR (lmo2088) for 94% of the adapted strains and mutations in other effectors at a lower frequency. FepR is a local repressor of the MATE fluoroquinolone efflux pump FepA. The impact of the mutations on the structure and function of the protein was assessed by performing in silico prediction and protein homology modeling. Our results show that 75% of the missense mutations observed in fepR are located in the HTH domain of the protein, within the DNA interaction site. These mutations are predicted to reduce the activity of the regulator, leading to the overexpression of the efflux pump responsible for the ciprofloxacin-enhanced resistance.

Listeria monocytogenes: Investigation of Fitness in Soil Does Not Support the Relevance of Ecotypes.

Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a ubiquitous bacterium that causes the serious foodborne illness listeriosis. Although soil is a primary reservoir and a central habitat for Lm, little information is available on the genetic features underlying the fitness of Lm strains in this complex habitat. The aim of this study was to identify (i) correlations between the strains fitness in soil, their origin and their phylogenetic position (ii) identify genetic markers allowing Lm to survive in the soil. To this end, we assembled a balanced panel of 216 Lm strains isolated from three major ecological compartments (outdoor environment, animal hosts, and food) and from 33 clonal complexes occurring worldwide. The ability of the 216 strains to survive in soil was tested phenotypically. Hierarchical clustering identified three phenotypic groups according to the survival rate (SR): phenotype 1 "poor survivors" (SR < 2%), phenotype 2 "moderate survivors" (2% < SR < 5%) and phenotype 3 "good survivors" (SR > 5%). Survival in soil depended neither on strains' origin nor on their phylogenetic position. Genome-wide-association studies demonstrated that a greater number of genes specifically associated with a good survival in soil was found in lineage II strains (57 genes) than in lineage I strains (28 genes). Soil fitness was mainly associated with variations in genes (i) coding membrane proteins, transcription regulators, and stress resistance genes in both lineages (ii) coding proteins related to motility and (iii) of the category "phage-related genes." The cumulative effect of these small genomic variations resulted in significant increase of soil fitness.

Genomic elements located in the accessory repertoire drive the adaptation to biocides in Listeria monocytogenes strains from different ecological niches.

In response to the massive use of biocides for controlling Listeria monocytogenes (hereafter Lm) contaminations along the food chain, strains showing biocide tolerance emerged. Here, accessory genomic elements were associated with biocide tolerance through pangenome-wide associations performed on 197 Lm strains from different lineages, ecological, geographical and temporal origins. Mobile elements, including prophage-related loci, the Tn6188_qacH transposon and pLMST6_emrC plasmid, were widespread across lineage I and II food strains and associated with tolerance to benzalkonium-chloride (BC), a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) widely used in food processing. The pLMST6_emrC was also associated with tolerance to another QAC, the didecyldimethylammonium-chloride, displaying a pleiotropic effect. While no associations were detected for chemically reactive biocides (alcohols and chlorines), genes encoding for cell-surface proteins were associated with BC or polymeric biguanide tolerance. The latter was restricted to lineage I strains from animal and the environment. In conclusion, different genetic markers, with polygenic nature or not, appear to have driven the Lm adaptation to biocide, especially in food strains but also from animal and the environment. These markers could aid to monitor and predict the spread of biocide tolerant Lm genotypes across different ecological niches, finally reducing the risk of such strains in food industrial settings.

A European-wide dataset to uncover adaptive traits of Listeria monocytogenes to diverse ecological niches.

Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a ubiquitous bacterium that causes listeriosis, a serious foodborne illness. In the nature-to-human transmission route, Lm can prosper in various ecological niches. Soil and decaying organic matter are its primary reservoirs. Certain clonal complexes (CCs) are over-represented in food production and represent a challenge to food safety. To gain new understanding of Lm adaptation mechanisms in food, the genetic background of strains found in animals and environment should be investigated in comparison to that of food strains. Twenty-one partners, including food, environment, veterinary and public health laboratories, constructed a dataset of 1484 genomes originating from Lm strains collected in 19 European countries. This dataset encompasses a large number of CCs occurring worldwide, covers many diverse habitats and is balanced between ecological compartments and geographic regions. The dataset presented here will contribute to improve our understanding of Lm ecology and should aid in the surveillance of Lm. This dataset provides a basis for the discovery of the genetic traits underlying Lm adaptation to different ecological niches.

Plants as a realized niche for Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria monocytogenes is a human pathogen. It is the causative agent of listeriosis, the leading cause of bacterial-linked foodborne mortality in Europe and elsewhere. Outbreaks of listeriosis have been associated with the consumption of fresh produce including vegetables and fruits. In this review we summarize current data providing direct or indirect evidence that plants can serve as habitat for L. monocytogenes, enabling this human pathogen to survive and grow. The current knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the interaction of this bacterium with plants is addressed, and whether this foodborne pathogen elicits an immune response in plants is discussed.

Phylogenetic Analysis and Genome-Wide Association Study Applied to an Italian Listeria monocytogenes Outbreak.

From May 2015 to March 2016, a severe outbreak due to Listeria monocytogenes ST7 strain occurred in Central Italy and caused 24 confirmed clinical cases. The epidemic strain was deeply investigated using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis. In the interested area, the foodborne outbreak investigation identified a meat food-producing plant contaminated by the outbreak strain, carried by pork-ready-to-eat products. In the same region, in March 2018, the epidemic strain reemerged causing one listeriosis case in a 10-month-old child. The aim of this study was to investigate the phylogeny of the epidemic and reemergent strains over time and to compare them with a closer ST7 clone, detected during the outbreak and with different pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) profiles, in order to identify genomic features linked to the persistence and the reemergence of the outbreak. An approach combining phylogenetic analysis and genome-wide association study (GWAS) revealed that the epidemic and reemergent clones were genetically closer to the ST7 clone with different PFGE profiles and strictly associated with the pork production chain. The repeated detection of both clones was probably correlated with (i) the presence of truly persistent clones and the repeated introduction of new ones and (ii) the contribution of prophage genes in promoting the persistence of the epidemic clones. Despite that no significant genomic differences were detected between the outbreak and the reemergent strain, the two related clones detected during the outbreak can be differentiated by transcriptional factor and phage genes associated with the phage LP-114.

Exposure to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Selects Resistance to Ciprofloxacin in Listeria monocytogenes.

In this contribution, the antimicrobial susceptibility toward 11 antibiotics and four biocides of a panel of 205 Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) strains isolated from different ecological niches (i.e., food, animals and natural environment) was evaluated. The impact of exposure to biocides on the antibiotic susceptibilities of Lm was also investigated. Lm strains isolated from food exhibited overall a lower susceptibility (higher minimal inhibitory concentrations, MIC) for ammonium quaternary compounds (QACs) and peracetic acid (PAC) than strains isolated from animals and natural environments. Conversely, the ecological origins of Lm strains did not significantly affect their susceptibilities towards antibiotics. Interestingly, repeated exposure to QACs recurrently led to a decrease in susceptibility toward ciprofloxacin (CIP), a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, largely used in human medicine. Moreover, these lower levels of susceptibility to CIP remained stable in most Lm strains even after subcultures without biocide selection pressure, suggesting an adaptation involving modifications at the genetic level. Results underlined the ability of Lm to adapt to biocides, especially QACs, and the potential link between this adaptation and the selection of resistance toward critical antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin. These data support a potential role of the extensive use of QACs from "farm to fork" in the selection of biocide and antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria such as Lm.

First Report on the Finding of Listeria mnocytogenes ST121 Strain in a Dolphin Brain.

Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a ubiquitous bacterium that causes the foodborne illness, listeriosis. Clonal complexes (CC), such as CC121, are overrepresented in the food production industry, and are rarely reported in animals and the environment. Working within a European-wide project, we investigated the routes by which strains are transmitted from environments and animals to food and the food production environment (FPE). In this context, we report, for the first time, the occurrence of a ST121 (CC121) strain isolated from a dolphin brain. The genome was compared with the genomes of 376 CC121 strains. Genomic comparisons showed that 16 strains isolated from food were the closest to the dolphin strain. Like most of the food strains analyzed here, the dolphin strain included genomic features (transposon Tn6188, plasmid pLM6179), both described as being associated with the strain's adaptation to the FPE. Like all 376 strains, the dolphin strain contained a truncated actA gene and inlA gene, both described as being associated with attenuated virulence. Despite this fact, the strain was able to cross blood-brain barrier in immunosuppressed dolphin exposed polychlorinated biphenyl and invaded by parasites. Our data suggest that the dolphin was infected by a food-related strain released into the Mediterranean Sea.

Source Attribution Study of Sporadic Salmonella Derby Cases in France.

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Derby is one of the most frequent causes of gastroenteritis in humans. In Europe, this pathogen is one of the top five most commonly reported serovars in human cases. In France, S. Derby has been among the ten most frequently isolated serovars in humans since the year 2000. The main animal hosts of this serovar are pigs and poultry, and white meat is the main source of human contamination. We have previously shown that this serovar is polyphyletic and that three distinct genetic lineages of S. Derby cohabit in France. Two of them are associated with pork and one with poultry. In this study, we conducted a source attribution study based on single nucleotide polymorphism analysis of a large collection of 440 S. Derby human and non-human isolates collected in 2014-2015, to determine the contribution of each lineage to human contamination. In France, the two lineages associated with pork strains, and corresponding to the multilocus sequence typing (MLST) profiles ST39-ST40 and ST682 were responsible for 94% of human contaminations. Interestingly, the ST40 profile is responsible for the majority of human cases (71%). An analysis of epidemiologic data and the structure of the pork sector in France allowed us to explain the spread and the sporadic pattern of human cases that occurred in the studied period.

Genetic Diversity of Salmonella Derby from the Poultry Sector in Europe.

Salmonella Derby (S. Derby) is emerging in Europe as a predominant serovar in fattening turkey flocks. This serovar was recorded as being predominant in the turkey sector in 2014 in the United Kingdom (UK). Only two years later, in 2016, it was also recorded in the turkey and broiler sectors in Ireland and Spain. These S. Derby isolates were characterised as members of the multilocus sequence type (MLST) profile 71 (ST71). For the first time, we characterise by whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis a panel of 90 S. Derby ST71 genomes to understand the routes of transmission of this emerging pathogen within the poultry/turkey food trade. Selected panel included strains isolated as early as 2010 in five leading European g countries for turkey meat production. Twenty-one of the 90 genomes were extracted from a public database-Enterobase. Five of these originated from the United States (n=3), China (n=1) and Taiwan (n=1) isolated between 1986 and 2016. A phylogenomic analysis at the core-genome level revealed the presence of three groups. The largest group contained 97.5% of the European strains and included both, turkey and human isolates that were genetically related by an average of 35 ± 15 single nucleotide polymorphism substitutions (SNPs). To illustrate the diversity, the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes and phages were characteised in 30, S. Derby ST71 genomes, including 11 belonging to this study This study revealed an emergent turkey-related S. Derby ST71 clone circulating in at least five European countries (the UK, Germany, Poland, Italy, and France) since 2010 that causes human gastroenteritis. A matter of concern is the identification of a gyrA mutation involved in resistance to quinolone, present in the Italian genomes. Interestingly, the diversity of phages seems to be related to the geographic origins. These results constitute a baseline for following the spread of this emerging pathogen and identifying appropriate monitoring and prevention measures.

Correction for Sévellec et al., "Complete Genome Sequence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serotype Derby, Associated with the Pork Sector in France".

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1128/MRA.01027-18.].

Complete Genome Sequence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serotype Derby, Associated with the Pork Sector in France.

In the European Union, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Derby is the most abundant serotype isolated from pork. Recent studies have shown that this serotype is polyphyletic. However, one main genomic lineage, characterized by sequence type 40 (ST40), the presence of the Salmonella pathogenicity island 23, and showing resistance to streptomycin, sulphonamides, and tetracycline (STR-SSS-TET), is pork associated. Here, we describe the complete genome sequence of a strain from this lineage isolated in France.

Polyphyletic Nature of Salmonella enterica Serotype Derby and Lineage-Specific Host-Association Revealed by Genome-Wide Analysis.

In France, Salmonella Derby is one of the most prevalent serotypes in pork and poultry meat. Since 2006, it has ranked among the 10 most frequent Salmonella serotypes isolated in humans. In previous publications, Salmonella Derby isolates have been characterized by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles revealing the existence of different pulsotypes and AMR phenotypic groups. However, these results suffer from the low discriminatory power of these typing methods. In the present study, we built a collection of 140 strains of S. Derby collected in France from 2014 to 2015 representative of the pork and poultry food sectors. The whole collection was characterized using whole genome sequencing (WGS), providing a significant contribution to the knowledge of this underrepresented serotype, with few genomes available in public databases. The genetic diversity of the S. Derby strains was analyzed by single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). We also investigated AMR by both genome and phenotype, the main Salmonella pathogenicity island (SPI) and the fimH gene sequences. Our results show that this S. Derby collection is spread across four different lineages genetically distant by an average of 15k SNPs. These lineages correspond to four multilocus sequence typing (MLST) types (ST39, ST40, ST71, and ST682), which were found to be associated with specific animal hosts: pork and poultry. While the ST71 and ST682 strains are pansusceptible, ST40 isolates are characterized by the multidrug resistant profile STR-SSS-TET. Considering virulence determinants, only ST39 and ST40 present the SPI-23, which has previously been associated with pork enterocyte invasion. Furthermore, the pork ST682 isolates were found to carry mutations in the fimH sequence that could participate in the host tropism of this group. Our phylogenetic analysis demonstrates the polyphyletic nature of the Salmonella serotype Derby and provides an opportunity to identify genetic factors associated with host adaptation and markers for the monitoring of these different lineages within the corresponding animal sectors. The recognition of these four lineages is of primary importance for epidemiological surveillance throughout the food production chains and constitutes the first step toward refining monitoring and preventing dispersal of this pathogen.