Is There a Sex Difference in Technical Skills among Youth Soccer Players in Norway?

Female soccer has recently experienced an impressive increase in the number of players, and an impressive improvement in the quality of elite matches. Still, studies show sex differences in match statistics on passing accuracy and the ability to control the ball in international matches, which is explained by a lower skill of level in female soccer players as compared to male players. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate if female youth soccer players had bridged the gap in technical skills to reach the level that boys have traditionally attained. Sixteen male and 17 female youth soccer players of the same age and experience level took part in technical skill tests of reception of the ball on the ground and long passes. The results show a significant difference between the sexes in reception performance in favour of the male players (p < 0.05, ES = 1.09), but no significant difference in the long pass test (p = 0.11, ES = 0.43). This leads to the conclusion that the lower score on ball reception is probably the result of experience in small-sided self-organised soccer games during childhood among the male players, which influences reception skills but not the ability to make accurate long passes.

A Novel Approach for Comparison of Reception Performance in a Technique Test and Small-Sided Games.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the correlation between soccer players' performance of receptions of passes in tests of both isolated technical skills and more match-realistic situations in small-sided games (SSGs). In addition, this study investigated whether the involvement in SSGs (number of receptions) correlated with the quality of receptions in the respective SSGs. The participants were 13 male outfield youth soccer players from teams in the first division of the regional U18 league. The quality of receptions was scored by educated coaches according to set criteria of performance. Statistical analyses of correlations were determined using Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient (rs). The main results were (1) a significant correlation in the quality of ball reception between 4vs1 SSGs and 5vs5 SSGs (rs = -0.61, p < 0.01) and (2) a trend towards moderate correlation between the quality of ball reception using a ball projection machine and 5vs5 SSGs (rs = -0.48, p = 0.10). (3) A significant correlation was found between the number of receptions in 5vs5 SSGs and the quality score of receptions in 5vs5 SSGs (rs = -0.70, p < 0.01). The trend towards moderate correlations between 5vs5 SSGs and the isolated technical reception test could imply the importance of training in the technical aspects of ball reception. Moreover, it seems as though the players with the best reception performance are the players who are most involved in SSGs, that is, having the most receptions.

The Validity of Functional Threshold Power and Maximal Oxygen Uptake for Cycling Performance in Moderately Trained Cyclists.

Cycling is a popular sport, and evaluation of the validity of tests to predict performance in competitions is important for athletes and coaches. Similarity between performance in sprints in mass-start bike races and in the laboratory is found, but, to our knowledge, no studies have investigated the relationship between laboratory measurements of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and functional threshold power (FTP) with performance in official mass-start competitions. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of a 20 min FTP test and VO2max as predictors for performance in an official mountain bike competition. Eleven moderately trained male cyclists at a local level participated in this study (age: 43 ± 5.1 years; height: 183.4 ± 5.4 m; weight: 84.4 ± 8.7 kg; body mass index: 25.1 ± 2.1). All subjects performed a 20 min FTP test in the laboratory to measure the mean power. In addition, the subjects completed an incremental test to exhaustion to determine VO2max. These two laboratory tests were analyzed together with the results from a 47 km mass-start mountain bike race, with a total elevation of 851 m. A significant relationship was found between the mean relative power (W/kg) for the 20 min FTP test and performance time in the race (r = -0.74, P < 0.01). No significant correlation was found between VO2max and cycling performance for these subjects (r = -0.37). These findings indicate that a 20 min FTP test is a more valid test for prediction of performance in mass-start bike races than a VO2max test for moderately trained cyclists.

Bulk characterization of pharmaceutical powders by low-pressure compression II: effect of method settings and particle size.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of punch and die diameter, sample size, compression speed, and particle size on two low-pressure compression-derived parameters; the compressed density and the Walker w parameter. The excellent repeatability of the low-pressure compression method allowed small effects of variations in punch and die diameter and sample size to be demonstrated on a high significance level. Changing the compression speed, however, did not cause a significant effect in the compressed density, whereas a decrease in w was seen. The effect of particle size was studied by compressing and tapping different grades of calcium carbonate, lactose, and microcrystalline cellulose. The low-pressure compression-derived parameters were compared to tapped densities and to Compressibility Indexes obtained by tapping volumetry. Even though the relationship between particle size and the low-pressure compression-derived parameters appeared to be more complicated, a similar trend was observed. It was concluded that the low-pressure compression method provides a useful alternative to the more sample-consuming methods providing flow-related information.

Bulk characterization of pharmaceutical powders by low-pressure compression.

Low-pressure compression of pharmaceutical powders using small amounts of sample (50 mg) was evaluated as an alternative to traditional bulk powder characterization by tapping volumetry. Material parameters were extrapolated directly from the compression data and by fitting with the Walker, the Kawakita, and the Log-Exp compression models. The compression-derived material parameters were compared to the poured and tapped density and the Compressibility Index determined by tapping. The repeatability of the compression-derived parameters was generally high, supporting their potential for characterization purposes. Significant correlation was demonstrated between several of the compression and tapping-derived parameters. The discriminative power of the low-pressure compression test was discussed using the compressed density at 0.2 MPa, correlated with the tapped density, and the relative Walker coefficient, correlated with the Compressibility Index, as examples. The compressed density at 0.2 MPa and the relative Walker coefficient demonstrated excellent discriminative power, superior to the discriminative power of the correlated tapping derived parameters. The low-pressure compression test was concluded to provide a cost-effective and sensitive alternative to traditional tapping volumetry.

Prodrugs of purine and pyrimidine analogues for the intestinal di/tri-peptide transporter PepT1: affinity for hPepT1 in Caco-2 cells, drug release in aqueous media and in vitro metabolism.

A general drug delivery approach for increasing oral bioavailability of purine and pyrimidine analogues such as acyclovir may be to link these compounds reversibly to stabilized dipeptide pro-moieties with affinity for the human intestinal di/tri-peptide transporter, hPepT1. In the present study, novel L-Glu-Sar and D-Glu-Ala ester prodrugs of acyclovir and 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-linked thymine were synthesized and their affinities for hPepT1 in Caco-2 cells were determined. Furthermore, the degradation of the prodrugs was investigated in various aqueous and biological media and compared to the corresponding hydrolysis of the prodrug valaciclovir. Affinity studies showed that the L-Glu-Sar prodrugs had high affinity for hPepT1 (K(i) approximately 0.2-0.3 mM), whereas the D-Glu-Ala prodrugs had poor affinity (K(i) approximately 50 mM). The pH-rate profiles of the prodrugs D-Glu[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)thymine]-Ala and L-Glu[acyclovir]-Sar showed specific base catalyzed degradation at pH above 4.5 and 5.5, respectively. This implicates that the degradation rates at pH approximately 7.4 (t(1/2) approximately 3.5 and 5.5 h) are approximately 25 times faster than at upper small intestinal pH approximately 6.0. In 10% porcine intestinal homogenate and 80% human plasma the half-lives of the L-Glu-Sar prodrugs were approximately between 45 and 90 min indicating a limited enzyme catalyzed degradation. In contrast, valaciclovir underwent extensive enzyme catalyzed hydrolysis in 10% porcine intestinal homogenate (t(1/2) approximately 1 min). In conclusion, L-Glu-Sar may potentially function as pro-moiety for purine and pyrimidine analogues, where release of parent compound primarily is controlled by a specific base catalyzed hydrolysis. Acyclovir is quantitatively released at the relevant pH 7.4, whereas the 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-linked thymine is released instead of the parent compound thymine.