A Study on Bicellar Structural Characteristics and Skin Permeabilities across the Stratum Corneum of Arginine-Modified Peptide-induced Bicelles as a Potential Transdermal Drug Carrier.

In this study, the effects of incorporating arginine-modified peptide into the structure of discshaped bicelles were investigated. Characterization of bicellar system was conducted using different techniques, including dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Bicelle skin permeability as drug carriers was also evaluated. The addition of peptides revealed formation of small-sized, stable and discoidal-shaped bicelles. Positive zeta potential and synchrotron radiation experiments confirmed the presence and showed the peptide distribution across the bicelle face and rim region. A major disruption with the lipid rearrangement of the stratum corneum and the disruption of bicelle structures by the interaction between bicelle lipids and stratum corneum lipids were observed during the application of bicelles with cholesteryl chloroformate-arginine 8-mer (CholR8). This also demonstrated the highest penetration of the drug-loaded bicelle across the hairless mouse skin. As a model drug, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, meloxicam was selected. Meloxicam was incorporated into the hydrophobic domain of bicelles due to its hydrophobic property. Considering these results, bicelle induced with peptides exhibits useful and promising characteristics and behaviors, shaping an effective strategy for future transdermal drug delivery applications.

Supramolecular Hybrids of Proteins from Habu Snake Venom with Discrete [Pt(CN)4]2- Complex.

The venom of the Habu snake Protobothrops flavoviridis (P. flavoviridis) is known to contain a diverse array of proteins and peptides, with a notable presence of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes. These PLA2 enzymes have been extensively studied for their function and molecular evolution. Nevertheless, several aspects, such as the physical properties and the self-assembly mechanism of hierarchical structure from the nanoscale to the microscale with different chemical compounds, remain poorly understood. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap by investigating the behavior of enzyme components purified from P. flavoviridis venom in the presence of anionic [Pt(CN)4]2- complexes, which have the potential for soft metallophilic interactions and interesting optical properties. The purified PLA2 isozymes were diluted in Dulbecco's phosphate buffered saline (D-PBS (-)) and combined with the anionic metal complex, resulting in the formation of microstructures several micrometers in size, which further grew to form fibrous structures. This novel approach of combining PLA2 enzymes with discrete functional metal complexes opens up exciting possibilities for designing flexible and functional supramolecular and biomolecular hybrid systems in aqueous environments. These findings shed light on the potential applications of snake venom enzymes in nanotechnology and bioengineering.

Preparation and in Vitro Characterization of Fatty-Acid Modified Pirarubicin Nanosuspensions Stabilized by Albumin.

Pirarubicin (THP) shows more rapid intracellular uptake, more effective antitumor activity, and less cardiac toxicity, compared to doxorubicin. However, THP is distributed to both tumor and normal tissues indiscriminately. This study aimed to develop a nanosuspension to deliver THP to tumor tissues more efficiently. Fatty-acid-modified THPs (FA-THPs; octanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, palmitic acid-THPs) were synthesized to increase the hydrophobicity of THP. Nanosuspensions of these FA-THPs were then prepared using an antisolvent precipitation technique. Among the FA-THPs, the most efficiently drug-loaded nanosuspension was obtained from palmitic acid-THP (pal-THP) using an aqueous antisolvent containing bovine serum albumin as a stabilizer. The pal-THP nanoparticles in the nanosuspension were confirmed to be of optimal size (100-125 nm) for delivery to tumor tissues using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The pal-THP nanosuspension showed cytotoxicity in colon 26 cells. The nanosuspension was shown to disintegrate in the presence of surfactants such as lecithin, liberating pal-THP, which was converted to free THP in acidic media. It is therefore proposed that pal-THP nanoparticles that reach tumor cells after intravenous administration would exert antitumor effect by liberating pal-THP (i.e., disintegration of nanoparticles by the interaction with cell membrane), followed by the release of free THP in the acidic milieu of tumor cells. These findings indicate that FA-THP nanosuspensions, particularly pal-THP nanosuspension, hold promise as a candidate for cancer treatment. However, further in vivo studies are necessary.

Encapsulation of an Antioxidant in Redox-Sensitive Self-Assembled Albumin Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Hepatitis.

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver caused by the inadequate elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from Kupffer cells. Edaravone is clinically used as an antioxidant but shows poor liver distribution. Herein, we report on the design of a Kupffer cell-oriented nanoantioxidant based on a disulfide cross-linked albumin nanoparticle containing encapsulated edaravone (EeNA) as a therapeutic for the treatment of hepatitis. Since the edaravone is bound to albumin, this results in a soluble and stable form of edaravone in water. Exchanging the intramolecular disulfide bonds to intermolecular disulfide bridges of albumin molecules allowed the preparation of a redox responsive albumin nanoparticle that is stable in the blood circulation but can release drugs into cells. Consequently, EeNA was fabricated by the nanoscale self-assembly of edaravone and albumin nanoparticles without the additives that are contained in commercially available edaravone preparations. EeNA retained its nanostructure under serum conditions, but the encapsulated edaravone was released efficiently under intracellular reducing conditions in macrophages. The EeNA was largely distributed in the liver and subsequently internalized into Kupffer cells within 60 min after injection in a concanavalin-A-induced hepatitis mouse. The survival rate of the hepatitis mice was significantly improved by EeNA due to the suppression of liver necrosis and oxidative stress by scavenging excessive ROS. Moreover, even through the postadministration, EeNA showed an excellent hepatoprotective action as well. In conclusion, EeNA has the potential for use as a nanotherapeutic against various types of hepatitis because of its Kupffer cell targeting ability and redox characteristics.

Effect of water content on stratum corneum penetration mechanism of W/O type microemulsions.

The stratum corneum (SC) consists of a lipid layer that forms two types of lamellar structures: short lamellar (S-La) and long lamellar (L-La). It has been reported that S-La contains water phases in the hydrophilic region of the lipids, and that it may play an important role in regulating the water content of the SC. The amount of water in the SC can affect how a drug carrier permeates through the intercellular lipid pathway. To better understand the impact of SC water content on the skin penetration mechanism of a microemulsion (ME), we conducted a study using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). Our results showed that MEs can enhance skin permeation under humid conditions because the lipid packing structures of the hydrated SC are more disrupted than those of the dry SC. The results also showed that the inner water of MEs was released to the SC when applying MEs to the dry SC, resulting in an increase in the repeat distance of S-La. Conversely, when MEs are applied to hydrated SC, the MEs absorb the water from the SC into their inner phases, causing a decrease in the repeat distance of S-La over time.

Drug-Loaded Biocompatible Chitosan Polymeric Films with Both Stretchability and Controlled Release for Drug Delivery.

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide with the advantageous qualities of biocompatibility and biodegradability, and it has recently been spotlighted as a soft material for a sustainable society. Advantages such as these are in demand for application in various biomaterials. Although extensive studies have been conducted on the preparation of chitosan films, overcoming the problems of weak mechanical properties remains a significant barrier. In the present study, we developed stretchable doxorubicin-loaded biocompatible chitosan films by adding acetic acid in controlled concentrations. The stretchable properties of doxorubicin-loaded chitosan film at various concentrations of acetic acid were measured. Elongation to the point of breakage reached 27% with a high concentration of acetic acid, which could be described as high stretchability. The release ratio of doxorubicin from chitosan film reached 70% with a high acetic acid concentration. The cytotoxicity of doxorubicin-loaded chitosan films was measured, and cancer spheroids had completely collapsed after 7 days. According to the results of skin permeability testing, use of the doxorubicin-loaded chitosan film is a plausible choice for a drug sealant.

Supramolecular Assembly of Hybrid Pt(II) Porphyrin/Tomatine Analogues with Different Nanostructures and Cytotoxic Activities.

A simple strategy for synthesizing supramolecular hybrids was developed for the preparation of bioavailable nanohybrid photosensitizers by assembling visible-light-sensitive Pt(II) meso-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrinporphyrin (PtTCPP)/tomatine analogues. The hybrids were self-assembled into nanofibrous or nanosheet structures approximately 3-5 nm thick and several micrometers wide. α-Tomatine generated a unique fibrous vesicle nanostructure based on intermolecular interactions, while dehydrotomatine generated nanosheet structures. Nanoassembly of these fibrous vesicles and sheets directly affected the properties of the light-responsive photosensitizer for tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT), depending on the nanostructure of the hybrid PtTCPP/tomatine analogues. The cytotoxicity of PtTCPP to cancer cells under photoirradiation was significantly enhanced by a tomatine assembly with a fibrous vesicle nanostructure, attributable to increased incorporation of the drug into cells.

Penetration Process of a Hydrated Deep Eutectic Solvent Through the Stratum Corneum and its Application as a Protein Penetration Enhancer.

The penetration mechanism of choline chloride-glycerol deep eutectic solvent (DES) through the stratum corneum (SC) as a potential solvent for a novel enhancer of protein penetration into the skin was investigated in a wide and small angle X-ray diffraction study. We found that DES penetrated through intercellular lipids but not the corneocytes. DES seemed to extract a portion of lipids of the short lamellae in the SC. Hydrated DES with a DES to water weight ratio of 9 to 1 (9DES-1H2O) showed the strongest interaction with the lipids in the SC compared with water, DES, and hydrated DESs with another weight ratio of DES to water (DES : water=8 : 2). In a skin penetration test with a fluorescently labelled lysozyme, 9DES-1H2O increased the amount of penetration through the SC by two-fold compared with HEPES buffer.

Characterization of Bovine Lactoferrin Nanoparticle Prepared by Desolvation Technique.

Lactoferrin (Lf) nanoparticles have been developed as a carrier of drugs and gene. Two main methods, desolvation technique and emulsification method, for preparation of protein nanoparticles have been reported so far, but most of the previous reports of Lf nanoparticles preparation are limited to emulsification method. In this study, we investigated the optimal conditions by desolvation technique for the preparation of glutaraldehyde-crosslinked bovine Lf (bLf) nanoparticles within the size range of 100-200 nm, and evaluated their properties as a carrier for oral and intravenous drug delivery. The experimental results of dynamic light scattering and Transmission Electron Microscope suggested that glutaraldehyde-crosslinked bLf nanoparticles with 150 nm in size could be produced by addition of 2-propanol as the desolvating solvent into the bLf solution adjusted to pH 6, followed by crosslinking with glutaraldehyde. These cross-linked bLf nanoparticles were found to be compatible to blood components and resistant against rapid degradation by pepsin. Thus, cross-linked bLf nanoparticles prepared by desolvation technique can be applied as a drug carrier for intravenous administration and oral delivery.

Double-layered honeycomb architectures constructed via hierarchical self-assembly of hexagonal spin crossover cobalt(ii) metallacycles.

A hexagonal cobalt(ii) metallacycle and its "lipid packaged" derivatives, [Co6(R-bisterpy)6]X12 (R = H, OC16H33, OC27H55; X = BF4, C12-Glu), have been synthesized and characterized. The compounds incorporating BF4- anions formed sphere-like aggregates while the compounds with C12-Glu lipid anions gave double-layered honeycomb architectures composed of hexagonal stacked tubular structures, which exhibit spin crossover behaviour.

Preparation, Characterization, and in Vitro/in Vivo Evaluation of Paclitaxel-Bound Albumin-Encapsulated Liposomes for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer.

Paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded liposomes were developed with the goal of enhancing the effects of cancer treatment. Although loading substances into the lipid membrane of liposome cause some destabilization of the lipid membrane, PTX was nearly exclusively embedded in the lipid membrane of liposomes, due to its low water solubility. Hydrophobic drugs can be encapsulated into the inner core of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-encapsulated liposomes (BSA-liposome) via noncovalent binding to albumin. Since PTX is able to noncovalently bind to albumin, we attempted to prepare PTX-loaded BSA-liposome (PTX-BSA-liposome). The amount of PTX loaded in the BSA-liposome could be increased substantially by using ethanol, since ethanol increases PTX solubility in BSA solutions via prompting the binding PTX to BSA. On the basis of the results of transmission electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering, PTX-BSA-liposome formed unilamellar vesicles that were spherical in shape and the PTX was encapsulated into the inner aqueous core of the liposome as a form of PTX-BSA complex. In addition, the PTX-BSA-liposome, as well as nab-PTX, showed cytotoxicity against human pancreatic cancer cells, AsPC-1 cells, in a PTX concentration-dependent manner. The in vivo antitumor effect of PTX-BSA-liposomes was also observed in a mouse model that had been subcutaneously inoculated with pancreatic cancer cells by virtue of its high accumulation at the tumor site via the enhanced permeability retention effect. These results suggest that PTX-BSA-liposomes have the potential for serving as a novel PTX preparation method for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Deep Eutectic Solvent-Induced Structural Transition of Microemulsions Explored with Small-Angle X-ray Scattering.

Microemulsions (MEs) containing deep eutectic solvents (DESs) and water in the inner phase for use in transdermal delivery of poorly soluble drugs were prepared using a mixture of polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (Tween-80) and sorbitan laurate (Span-20) as surfactants. We investigated the effects of the ratios of surfactant (Tween-80/Span-20) and solvents (DES components/water) on the ME structure determined by the analysis of small-angle X-ray scattering profiles with the core-corona model. Tween-80 with an unsaturated long alkyl chain induced a structural transition of MEs from a sphere to a cylinder. DESs caused the aggregation of surfactants due to the solvophobic interactions between DESs and the alkyl chains of surfactants. Transmittance electron microscopy images of MEs indicated the presence of aggregates of the dispersed ME particles with each shape.

Albumin-Encapsulated Liposomes: A Novel Drug Delivery Carrier With Hydrophobic Drugs Encapsulated in the Inner Aqueous Core.

Liposomes are clinically used in drug delivery, but loading hydrophobic substances is limited to the hydrophobic space of a lipid membrane, despite the fact that it is favorable to encapsulate substances into the inner aqueous core of liposome, from a drug stability of view. We report herein on the preparation of a liposome with bovine serum albumin encapsulated (BSA-liposome). Using this system, it is possible to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs in the inner aqueous core of the liposome based on the hypothesis that the water solubility of hydrophobic drugs is increased when bound to albumin. The physicochemical properties of the prepared BSA-liposomes could be easily regulated and the loading of hydrophobic drugs in the inner aqueous core of the liposome was dramatically improved by virtue of the drug-binding properties of albumin. An in vivo safety and pharmacokinetic study showed that BSA-liposomes possess favorable properties as a drug carrier, including biocompatibility and a stealth effect. This new type of hydrophobic drug carrier, an albumin-liposome, has the potential for use in delivering numerous hydrophobic drugs that typically bind to albumin.