Aldosterone Exposure Causes Increased Retinal Edema and Severe Retinopathy Following Laser-Induced Retinal Vein Occlusion in Mice.

Purpose: To determine the effects of aldosterone exposure on retinal edema and retinopathy in a mouse model of retinal vein occlusion (RVO). Methods: RVO was induced immediately following intravenous injection of Rose bengal (66 mg/kg) using a 532-nm wavelength laser to place three to seven applications at 80 mW and 50-µm spot size directed at the superior retinal vein one disc diameter away from the nerve. Negative control consisted of placing an equal number of laser spots without targeting the vein. Male and female C57BL/6J mice aged 7 to 9 months with confirmed absence of Crb1rd8 were used. Aldosterone pellets releasing a daily dose of 0.83 µg/day were implanted subcutaneously 4 weeks prior to RVO. Retinal imaging by optical coherence tomography (OCT) was performed using a Micron IV rodent imaging system. Retinas were analyzed by immunohistochemistry using standard techniques. Retinal imaging and tissue analysis were performed 2, 4, and 7 days following RVO. Comparisons were made using Student's t-test, ANOVA, and Pearson's χ2. Results: RVO caused retinal edema in the form of cystic spaces and retinal thickening detectable by both OCT and histology. RVO also caused Müller glia (MG) dysfunction manifest as upregulated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and altered localization of aquaporin 4 (AQP4) and Kir4.1. Treatment with aldosterone caused a significant increase in retinal edema and more severe retinopathy manifest as retinal whitening and extensive intraretinal hemorrhage. MG dysfunction was more severe and persistent in aldosterone-treated mice. Finally, aldosterone greatly increased the number of infiltrating mononuclear phagocytes following RVO. Conclusions: Systemic aldosterone exposure causes a more severe RVO phenotype manifest as increased severity and duration of retinal edema and more severe retinopathy. The effects of aldosterone may be mediated by MG dysfunction and increased infiltration of mononuclear phagocytes. This suggests that small increases in aldosterone levels may be a risk factor for severe RVO.

Bone marrow transplantation transfers age-related susceptibility to neovascular remodeling in murine laser-induced choroidal neovascularization.

PURPOSE: Neovascular remodeling (NVR), the progression of small capillaries into large-caliber arterioles with perivascular fibrosis, represents a major therapeutic challenge in neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Neovascular remodeling occurs after laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in aged but not young mice. Additionally, bone marrow-derived cells, including macrophages, endothelial precursor cells, and mesenchymal precursor cells, contribute to CNV severity. In this study, we investigated the impact of aged bone marrow transplantation (BMT) on the degree of fibrosis, size, and vascular morphology of CNV lesions in a mouse model of laser-induced CNV. METHODS: Young (2 months) and old (16 months) mice were transplanted with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled bone marrow isolated from either young or old donors. Laser CNV was induced 1 month following transplant, and eyes were analyzed via choroidal flat mounts and immunohistochemistry 1 month postlaser. The identity of cells infiltrating CNV lesions was determined using specific markers for the labeled transplanted cells (GFP+), macrophages (F4/80+), perivascular mesenchymal-derived cells (smooth muscle actin, SMA+), and endothelial cells (CD31+). RESULTS: Bone marrow transplantation from aged mice transferred susceptibility to NVR into young recipients. Inversely, transplantation of young marrow into old mice prevented NVR, preserving small size and minimal fibrosis. Mice with NVR demonstrated a greater relative contribution of marrow-derived SMA+ perivascular mesenchymal cells as compared to other cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that the status of bone marrow is an important determining factor of neovascular severity. Furthermore, we find that perivascular mesenchymal cells, rather than endothelial cells, derived from aged bone marrow may contribute to increased CNV severity in this murine model of experimental neovascularization.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor deficiency causes dysregulated cellular matrix metabolism and age-related macular degeneration-like pathology.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a nuclear receptor that regulates xenobiotic metabolism and detoxification. Herein, we report a previously undescribed role for the AhR signaling pathway as an essential defense mechanism in the pathogenesis of early dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. We found that AhR activity and protein levels in human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, cells vulnerable in AMD, decrease with age. This finding is significant given that age is the most established risk factor for development of AMD. Moreover, AhR(-/-) mice exhibit decreased visual function and develop dry AMD-like pathology, including disrupted RPE cell tight junctions, accumulation of RPE cell lipofuscin, basal laminar and linear-like deposit material, Bruch's membrane thickening, and progressive RPE and choroidal atrophy. High-serum low-density lipoprotein levels were also observed in AhR(-/-) mice. In its oxidized form, this lipoprotein can stimulate increased secretion of extracellular matrix molecules commonly found in deposits from RPE cells, in an AhR-dependent manner. This study demonstrates the importance of cellular clearance via the AhR signaling pathway in dry AMD pathogenesis, implicating AhR as a potential target, and the mouse model as a useful platform for validating future therapies.

Estrogen receptor beta protects against in vivo injury in RPE cells.

Epidemiological data suggest that estrogen deficiency in postmenopausal women may contribute to the severity of AMD. We discovered that 17beta-estradiol (E2) was a crucial regulator of the severity of extracellular matrix turnover (ECM) dysregulation both in vivo and in vitro. We also found in vitro that the presence of estrogen receptor (ER)beta regulates MMP-2 activity. Therefore in an attempt to delineate the role of the ER subtypes, female estrogen receptor knockout (ERKO) mice were fed a high-fat diet, and the eyes were exposed to seven 5-second doses of nonphototoxic levels of blue-green light over 2 weeks. Three months after cessation of blue light treatment, transmission electron microscopy was performed to assess severity of deposits, Bruchs membrane changes, and choriocapillaris endothelial morphology. We found that changes in the trimolecular complex of pro-MMP-2, MMP-14 and TIMP-2 correlated with increased Bruch's membrane thickening or sub-retinal deposit formation (basal laminar deposits) in ERKObeta mice. In addition RPE isolated from ERKObeta mice had an increase in expression of total collagen and a decrease in MMP-2 activity. Finally we found that ERK an intermediate signaling molecule in the MMP pathway was activated in RPE isolated from ERKObeta mice. These data suggest that mice which lack ERbeta are more susceptible to in vivo injury associated with environmental light and high fat diet.

Oxidative stress-induced expression and modulation of Phosphatase of Regenerating Liver-1 (PRL-1) in mammalian retina.

The phosphatase of regenerating liver-1, PRL-1, gene was detected in a screen for foveal cone photoreceptor-associated genes. It encodes a small protein tyrosine phosphatase that was previously immunolocalized to the photoreceptors in primate retina. Here we report that in cones and cone-derived cultured cells both PRL-1 activity and PRL-1 gene expression are modulated under oxidative stress. Oxidation reversibly inhibited the phosphatase activity of PRL-1 due to the formation of an intramolecular disulfide bridge between Cys104 within the active site and another conserved Cys, Cys49. This modulation was observed in vitro, in cell culture and in isolated retinas exposed to hydrogen peroxide. The same treatment caused a rapid increase in PRL-1 expression levels in cultured cells which could be blocked by the protein translation inhibitor, cycloheximide. Increased PRL-1 expression was also observed in living rats subjected to constant light exposure inducing photooxidative stress. We further demonstrated that both oxidation and overexpression of PRL-1 upon oxidative stress are greatly enhanced by inhibition of the glutathione system responsible for cellular redox regulation. These findings suggest that PRL-1 is a molecular component of the photoreceptor's response to oxidative stress acting upstream of the glutathione system.

Engraftment of adult neural progenitor cells transplanted to rat retina injured by transient ischemia.

PURPOSE: To optimize delivery parameters for achieving engraftment, migration, and differentiation of adult neural progenitor cells transplanted to the retinas of rats after transient retinal ischemia. METHODS: Retinal ischemia was induced by transiently raising the intraocular pressure. Some animals then received transplantation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing cells derived from the adult rat hippocampus and were allowed to recover for 6 hours to 9 weeks. Retinal cryosections were prepared for TUNEL analysis to determine the time course of ischemia-induced cell death, and some sections were prepared for immunohistochemistry for retinal neuronal antigens. RESULTS: TUNEL analysis revealed that ischemia-induced cell death peaked at 24 hours. By 96 hours, the inner nuclear (INL) and ganglion cell (GCL) layers were largely obliterated in the central retina, sparing peripheral regions. By 2 weeks after transplantation, numerous GFP-expressing cells had engrafted into the host retina, migrated to the inner retina, and extended processes. At 4 weeks, many GFP-labeled cells were present throughout the INL and displayed horizontal-, bipolar-, and amacrine cell-like morphologies. GFP-expressing cells were also present in the GCL with fibers extending into the nerve fiber layer. At 5 weeks, many GFP-expressing cells were present at the optic nerve head, and some GFP-labeled fibers were present in the optic nerve, occasionally passing through the full extent of the lamina cribrosa. Only rarely were GFP-expressing cells found that coexpressed retinal phenotypic markers at any time point examined. CONCLUSIONS: Adult hippocampus-derived neural progenitor cells transplanted to the subretinal space readily engraft into a host retina that has undergone ischemic injury. Many cells migrate to specific retinal cellular layers and undergo limited morphologic differentiation reminiscent of retinal neurons, including extension of processes into the optic nerve. Concurrent control studies demonstrate that optimal engraftment is achieved by subretinal delivery within a specific temporal window. These results imply that certain inductive cues may be regulated after injury, and they demonstrate the potential for adult neural progenitor cell transplantation for the treatment of retinal neurodegenerative diseases.