Independent urban effect on hypertension of older Indians: identification of a knowledge gap from a Study on Global AGEing and Health.

Among older Indians, more cardiovascular diseases and risk factors are observed in the city dwellers than in the rural population. Clustering of socioeconomic privileges and consequent obesity in the Indian cities are known to underlie this phenomenon. But, it is unclear whether an independent urban effect exists on age-related ailments, unexplained by concentration of privileges and excess weight in the Indian cities. Hence, we aimed to estimate the independent urban effect on hypertension among older Indians after controlling for these factors. Nationally representative data of Indians aged 50 years and older (n = 7273) were collected by Study on global AGEing and health. Hypertension was defined as systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure >139 and > 89 mm Hg, respectively, and/or someone receiving antihypertensive medications. Permanent place of residence (urban/rural) during interview was recorded. Socioeconomic determinants included caste, occupation, assets, and education. Body mass index, abdominal circumference, smoking, alcohol, and physical activity were also controlled. The age- and sex-adjusted odds ratio of hypertension for urban residents was 1.64 (146-1.83), which partially attenuated to 1.22 (1.07-1.38) after controlling for all the covariates. This study highlights 22% excess odds of hypertension among the older Indian city dwellers, unexplained by the greater urban concentration of socioeconomic privileges and obesity. Future research should explore the constituents of this urban effect.

Out-of-pocket expenditure and drug adherence of patients with diabetes in Odisha.

INTRODUCTION: The burden of diabetes mellitus (DM) is increasing in India and across states. Given the chronic and progressive nature of the disease, it implicates huge financial burden on patients. Given this, the objectives of this study are to estimate the out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure on diabetes care and assess the magnitude of medication adherence among patients in a public hospital. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 206 patients with age ≥25 years visiting the outpatient department of a tertiary care hospital in Odisha. Cost data were collected from April to June 2016 using a structured questionnaire, and drug adherence was assessed using the Morisky Medication Adherence Scale. RESULTS: The average total expenditure per patient per month was INR 1265 (95% confidence interval 1178-1351), of which medical expenditure was INR 993 (95 confidence interval 912-1075) and that of nonmedical expenditure was INR 271 (95 confidence interval 251-292). Expenditure on medicine constituted around 65% of total medical expenditure. The other drivers of medical expenditure were diagnostics services constituting 13.2% and transportation (11.8%). Overall, only 15% of the patients reported high adherence to medication. DISCUSSION: This study generated evidence on OOP expenditure on diabetics in Odisha which are comparable to many Indian studies. One of the critical findings of this study was that a majority of patients visiting public hospitals had to spend OOP on medicine and diagnostic services. These findings could be used to design appropriate financing strategies to protect the interest of the poor who largely use public health facility in Odisha.

Social epidemiology of excess weight and central adiposity in older Indians: analysis of Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE).

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity, represented by extra body weight and abdominal circumference, among older Indians; and to characterise the social pattern of obesity and measure the magnitude of hypertension attributable to it. SETTING: A nationally representative sample of older Indians was selected from 6 Indian states, including Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra and Karnataka, as a part of the multicountry Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE). PARTICIPANTS: Indians aged 50 years or more (n=7273) were included in the first wave of the SAGE (2010), which we used in our study. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome measures included excess weight (EW), defined by body mass index (BMI) >25 kg/m(2), and central adiposity (CA), defined by waist circumference >90 cm for men and >80 cm for women. The secondary outcome included hypertension, defined by systolic blood pressure >139 or diastolic blood pressure >79 mm Hg, or by those receiving antihypertensive medications. RESULTS: 14% of older Indians possessed EW, whereas 35% possessed CA; 50.9% of the wealthier third and 27.7% of the poorer two-thirds have CA; the proportions being 69.1% and 46.2%, respectively, in older women. Mostly wealth (adjusted OR for CA: 4.36 (3.23 to 5.95) and EW: 4.39 (3.49 to 5.53)), but also urban residence, privileged caste, higher education, white-collared occupation and female gender, were important determinants. One of 17 older Indians overall and 1 of 18 in the poorer 70% suffered from CA-driven hypertension, independent of BMI. CONCLUSIONS: The problem of CA and its allied diseases is already substantial and expected to rise across all socioeconomic strata of older Indians, though currently, CA affects the privileged more than the underprivileged, in later life. Population-based promotion of appropriate lifestyles, with special emphasis on women, is required to counteract prosperity-driven obesity before it becomes too entrenched and expensive to uproot.