Co-occurrence of Periodontitis and Diabetes-Related Complications.

Periodontitis is a common finding among people with diabetes mellitus (DM) and has been cited as a DM complication. Whether and how periodontitis relates to other diabetes-related complications has yet to be explored. This study aims to examine the clustering of periodontitis with other diabetes-related complications and explore pathways linking diabetes-related complications with common risk factors. Using data from participants with DM across 3 cycles of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (n = 2,429), we modeled direct and indirect pathways from risk factors to diabetes-related complications, a latent construct comprising periodontitis, cardiovascular diseases, proteinuria, and hypertension. Covariates included age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), smoking, physical activity, healthy diet, alcohol consumption, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), dyslipidemia, and body mass index (BMI). Sensitivity analyses were performed considering participants with overweight/obesity and restricting the sample to individuals without DM. Periodontitis clustered with other diabetes complications, forming a latent construct dubbed diabetes-related complications. In NHANES III, higher HbA1c levels and BMI, older age, healthy diet, and regular physical activity were directly associated with the latent variable diabetes-related complications. In addition, a healthy diet and BMI had a total effect on diabetes-related complications. Although sex, smoking, dyslipidemia, and SES demonstrated no direct effect on diabetes-related complications in NHANES III, a direct effect was observed using NHANES 2011-2014 cycles. Sensitivity analysis considering participants with overweight/obesity and without DM showed consistent results. Periodontal tissue breakdown seems to co-occur with multiple diabetes-related complications and may therefore serve as a valuable screening tool for other well-known diabetes-related complications.

Patient-reported outcomes after 10-year follow-up of intensive, multifactorial treatment in individuals with screen-detected type 2 diabetes: the ADDITION-Europe trial.

AIMS: To present the longer-term impact of multifactorial treatment of type 2 diabetes on self-reported health status, diabetes-specific quality of life, and diabetes treatment satisfaction at 10-year follow up of the ADDITION-Europe trial. METHODS: The ADDITION-Europe trial enrolled 3057 individuals with screen-detected type 2 diabetes from four centres [Denmark, the UK (Cambridge and Leicester) and the Netherlands], between 2001 and 2006. Participants were randomized at general practice level to intensive treatment or to routine care . The trial ended in 2009 and a 10-year follow-up was performed at the end of 2014. We measured self-reported health status (36-item Short-Form Health Survey and EQ-5D), diabetes-specific quality of life (Audit of Diabetes-Dependent Quality of Life questionnaire), and diabetes treatment satisfaction (Diabetes Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire) at different time points during the study period. A mixed-effects model was applied to estimate the effect of intensive treatment (intention-to-treat analyses) on patient-reported outcome measures for each centre. Centre-specific estimates were pooled using a fixed effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: There was no difference in patient-reported outcome measures between the routine care and intensive treatment arms in this 10-year follow-up study [EQ-5D: -0.01 (95% CI -0.03, 0.01); Physical Composite Score (36-item Short-Form Health Survey): -0.27 (95% CI -1.11, 0.57), Audit of Diabetes-Dependent Quality of Life questionnaire: -0.01 (95% CI -0.11, 0.10); and Diabetes Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire: -0.20 (95% CI -0.70, 0.29)]. CONCLUSIONS: Intensive, multifactorial treatment of individuals with screen-detected type 2 diabetes did not affect self-reported health status, diabetes-specific quality of life, or diabetes treatment satisfaction at 10-year follow-up compared to routine care.

Risk of dementia and cognitive dysfunction in individuals with diabetes or elevated blood glucose.

AIMS: To determine the risk of dementia in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes and in individuals with glycosylated haemoglobin, type A1C (HbA1c) of ⩾48 mmol/mol, which is the diagnostic limit for diabetes. METHODS: We included the following cohorts: all incident diabetes cases aged 15 or above registered in the National Diabetes Registry (NDR) from January 2000 through December 2012 (n = 148 036) and a reference population, adult participants from the Glostrup cohort (n = 16 801), the ADDITION Study (n = 26 586) and Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank (CAMB) (n = 5408). Using these cohorts, we analysed if a diagnosis of type 1 or type 2 diabetes in the NDR or HbA1c level of ⩾ 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) in the cohorts increased risk of dementia in the Danish National Patient Registry or cognitive performance assessed by the Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 2000R (IST2000R). RESULTS: A diagnosis of type 1 or type 2 diabetes in the NDR was associated with increased risk of dementia diagnosed both before or after age 65 as well as across different subtypes of dementia. Self-reported diabetes or high HbA1c levels were associated with lower cognitive performance (p = 0.004), while high HbA1c was associated with increased risk of dementia (HR 1.94 (1.10-3.44) in the Glostrup cohort but not in the ADDITION Study (HR 0.96 (0.57-1.61)). CONCLUSIONS: Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes are associated with an increased risk of dementia, while the importance of screening-detected elevated HbA1c remains less clear.

Cardiovascular risk factors and incident albuminuria in screen-detected type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear whether cardiovascular risk factor modification influences the development of renal disease in people with type 2 diabetes identified through screening. We determined predictors of albuminuria 5 years after a diagnosis of screen-detected diabetes within the ADDITION-Europe study, a pragmatic cardiovascular outcome trial of multifactorial cardiovascular risk management. METHODS: In 1826 participants with newly diagnosed, screen-detected diabetes without albuminuria, we explored associations between risk of new albuminuria (≥2.5 mg mmol-1 for males and ≥3.5 mg mmol-1 for females) and (1) baseline cardio-metabolic risk factors and (2) changes from baseline to 1 year in systolic blood pressure (ΔSBP) and glycated haemoglobin (ΔHbA1c ) using logistic regression. RESULTS: Albuminuria developed in 268 (15%) participants; baseline body mass index and active smoking were independently associated with new onset albuminuria in 5 years after detection of diabetes. In a model adjusted for age, gender, baseline HbA1c and blood pressure, a 1% decrease in HbA1c and 5-mm Hg decrease in SBP during the first year were independently associated with lower risks of albuminuria (odds ratio), 95% confidence interval: 0.76, 0.62 to 0.91 and 0.94, 0.88 to 1.01, respectively. Further adjustment did not materially change these estimates. There was no interaction between ΔSBP and ΔHbA1c in relation to albuminuria risk, suggesting likely additive effects on renal microvascular disease. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline measurements and changes in HbA1c and SBP a year after diagnosis of diabetes through screening independently associate with new onset albuminuria 4 years later. Established multifactorial treatment for diabetes applies to cases identified through screening.

Methylglyoxal is associated with changes in kidney function among individuals with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

AIMS: The glycolysis-derived metabolite methylglyoxal has been linked to clinical microvascular complications, including diabetic nephropathy. We aimed to further investigate the hypothesis that methylglyoxal is involved in decline in renal function by assessing the associations between measures of renal function during a 6-year follow-up in 1481 people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes, as part of the Danish arm of the ADDITION-Europe trial (ADDITION-DK). METHODS: Biobank serum samples collected at ADDITION-DK baseline (2001-2006) and follow-up (2009-2010) were used in the current analysis of methylglyoxal. We assessed cross-sectional baseline and longitudinal associations between methylglyoxal and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) or estimated GFR (eGFR), and between methylglyoxal and categories of albuminuria or reduced eGFR. RESULTS: Baseline methylglyoxal was positively associated with ACR at baseline (12% higher ACR per doubling in methylglyoxal levels), and change in methylglyoxal during 6 years of follow-up was inversely associated with change in eGFR (-1.6 ml/min/1.73 m2 per doubling in methylglyoxal change), in models adjusted for age, sex, HbA1c , systolic blood pressure, anti-hypertensive treatment, LDL-cholesterol, lipid-lowering treatment, C-reactive protein and smoking. CONCLUSIONS: In a population of people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes, we observed associations between methylglyoxal and markers of renal function: 6-year change in methylglyoxal was inversely associated with 6-year change in eGFR. Also, methylglyoxal at baseline was positively associated with ACR at baseline. Our study lends further support to a role for methylglyoxal in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy.

Intensive multifactorial treatment modifies the effect of family history of diabetes on glycaemic control in people with Type 2 diabetes: a post hoc analysis of the ADDITION-Denmark randomized controlled trial.

AIM: To investigate whether intensive multifactorial treatment can reverse the predisposed adverse phenotype of people with Type 2 diabetes who have a family history of diabetes. METHODS: Data from the randomized controlled trial ADDITION-Denmark were used. A total of 1441 newly diagnosed patients with diabetes (598 with family history of diabetes) were randomized to intensive treatment or routine care. Family history of diabetes was defined as having one parent and/or sibling with diabetes. Linear mixed-effects models were used to assess the changes in risk factors (BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, lipids and HbA1c ) after 5 years of follow-up in participants with and without a family history of diabetes. An interaction term between family history of diabetes and treatment group was included in the models to test for a modifying effect of the intervention. All analyses were adjusted for age, sex, baseline value of the risk factor and general practice (random effect). RESULTS: At baseline, participants with a family history of diabetes were younger and had a 1.1 mmol/mol (0.1%) higher HbA1c concentration at the time of diagnosis than those without a family history of diabetes. Family history of diabetes modified the effect of the intervention on changes in HbA1c levels. In the group receiving routine care, participants with a family history of diabetes experienced an improvement in HbA1c concentration that was 3.3 mmol/mol (0.3%) lower than the improvement found in those without a family history of diabetes after 5 years of follow-up. In the intensive treatment group, however, there was no difference in HbA1c concentrations between participants with and without a family history of diabetes after 5 years of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Intensive treatment of diabetes may partly remove the adverse effects of family history of diabetes on glycaemic control. The effect of this improvement on long-term diabetic complications warrants further investigation.

The role of serum methylglyoxal on diabetic peripheral and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy: the ADDITION Denmark study.

AIMS: Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetic peripheral neuropathy are common diabetic complications and independent predictors of cardiovascular disease. The glucose metabolite methylglyoxal has been suggested to play a causal role in the pathogeneses of diabetic peripheral neuropathy and possibly diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy. The aim of this study was to investigate the cross-sectional association between serum methylglyoxal and diabetic peripheral neuropathy and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in a subset of patients in the ADDITION-Denmark study with short-term screen-detected Type 2 diabetes (duration ~ 5.8 years). METHODS: The patients were well controlled with regard to HbA(1c), lipids and blood pressure. Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy was assessed by measures of resting heart rate variability and cardiovascular autonomic reflex tests. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy was assessed by vibration detection threshold (n = 319), 10 g monofilament (n = 543) and the Michigan Neuropathy Screening Instrument questionnaire (n = 966). Painful diabetic neuropathy was assessed using the Brief Pain Inventory short form (n = 882). RESULTS: No associations between methylglyoxal and cardiovascular autonomic reflex tests or any measures of diabetic peripheral neuropathy or painful diabetic neuropathy were observed. However, a positive association between methylglyoxal and several heart rate variability indices was observed, although these associations were not statistically significant when corrected for multiple testing. CONCLUSION: Serum methylglyoxal is not associated with cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy, diabetic peripheral neuropathy or painful diabetic neuropathy in this cohort of well-treated patients with short-term diabetes.

Cost-effectiveness of intensive multifactorial treatment compared with routine care for individuals with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes: analysis of the ADDITION-UK cluster-randomized controlled trial.

AIMS: To examine the short- and long-term cost-effectiveness of intensive multifactorial treatment compared with routine care among people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes. METHODS: Cost-utility analysis in ADDITION-UK, a cluster-randomized controlled trial of early intensive treatment in people with screen-detected diabetes in 69 UK general practices. Unit treatment costs and utility decrement data were taken from published literature. Accumulated costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were calculated using ADDITION-UK data from 1 to 5 years (short-term analysis, n = 1024); trial data were extrapolated to 30 years using the UKPDS outcomes model (version 1.3) (long-term analysis; n = 999). All costs were transformed to the UK 2009/10 price level. RESULTS: Adjusted incremental costs to the NHS were £285, £935, £1190 and £1745 over a 1-, 5-, 10- and 30-year time horizon, respectively (discounted at 3.5%). Adjusted incremental QALYs were 0.0000, - 0.0040, 0.0140 and 0.0465 over the same time horizons. Point estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) suggested that the intervention was not cost-effective although the ratio improved over time: the ICER over 10 years was £82,250, falling to £37,500 over 30 years. The ICER fell below £30 000 only when the intervention cost was below £631 per patient: we estimated the cost at £981. CONCLUSION: Given conventional thresholds of cost-effectiveness, the intensive treatment delivered in ADDITION was not cost-effective compared with routine care for individuals with screen-detected diabetes in the UK. The intervention may be cost-effective if it can be delivered at reduced cost.

The impact of intensive multifactorial treatment on perceptions of chronic care among individuals with screen-detected diabetes: results from the ADDITION-Denmark trial.

OBJECTIVES: To describe perceptions of chronic care among diabetes patients 6 years after diagnosis by screening and to examine the impact of intensive treatment on patients' perceptions of chronic care. METHODS: The ADDITION-Denmark (2001-2006) trial compared the effects of intensive multifactorial therapy (IT) with routine care (RC) among individuals with screen-detected diabetes. Perceptions of chronic care were assessed using the Patient Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (PACIC) measure after 6-year follow-up (n = 937). Analysis was by intention-to-treat, accounting for clustering by general practice. RESULTS: The mean (SD) summary PACIC score was 2.4 (0.79) in the RC and 2.4 (0.82) in the IT group. The highest mean (SD) PACIC subscale score was for Delivery System Design/Decision Support [RC: 3.2 (0.95), IT: 3.3 (0.91)] and the lowest was for Follow-up/Coordination [RC: 2.1 (0.84), IT: 2.1 (0.87)]. Perceptions of chronic care did not differ between trial groups. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to RC, an intensive multifactorial intervention was not associated with differences in perceptions of chronic care among patients with screen-detected diabetes after 6 years. Intensive treatment does not adversely affect perceptions of chronic care early in the course of the disease. However, there is potentially room for improvement in some aspects of chronic care.

Variation in prescribing of lipid-lowering medication in primary care is associated with incidence of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in people with screen-detected diabetes: findings from the ADDITION-Denmark trial.

AIMS: To examine variation between general practices in the prescription of lipid-lowering treatment to people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes, and associations with practice and participant characteristics and risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality. METHODS: Observational cohort analysis of data from 1533 people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes aged 40-69 years from the ADDITION-Denmark study. One hundred and seventy-four general practices were cluster randomized to receive: (1) routine diabetes care according to national guidelines (623 individuals), or (2) intensive multifactorial target-driven management (910 individuals). Multivariable logistic regression was used to quantify the association between the proportion of individuals in each practice who redeemed prescriptions for lipid-lowering medication in the two years following diabetes diagnosis and a composite cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcome, adjusting for age, sex, prevalent chronic disease, baseline CVD risk factors, smoking and lipid-lowering medication, and follow-up time. RESULTS: The proportion of individuals treated with lipid-lowering medication varied widely between practices (0-100%). There were 118 CVD events over 9431 person-years of follow-up. For the whole trial cohort, the risk of CVD was significantly higher in practices in the lowest compared with the highest quartile for prescribing lipid-lowering medication [adjusted odds ratio (OR) 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-7.3]. Similar trends were found for all-cause mortality. CONCLUSIONS: More frequent prescription of lipid-lowering treatment was associated with a lower incidence of CVD and all-cause mortality. Improved understanding of factors underlying practice variation in prescribing may enable more frequent use of lipid-lowering treatment. The results highlight the benefits of intensive treatment of people with screen-detected diabetes (Clinical Trials Registry No; NCT 00237549).

Long-term mortality of persons with severe mental illness and diabetes: a population-based cohort study in Denmark.

BACKGROUND: Persons with severe mental illness (SMI) have excess mortality, which may partly be explained by their high prevalence of diabetes. METHOD: We compared the overall and cause-specific mortality in persons with SMI and diabetes with that of the general Danish population between 1997 and 2009 by linking data from Danish national registries. RESULTS: The cohort counted 4 734 703 persons, and during follow-up 651 080 persons died of whom 1083 persons had SMI and diabetes. Compared with the background population, the overall mortality rate ratios (MRRs) for persons with SMI and diabetes were 4.14 [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.81-4.51] for men and 3.13 (95% CI 2.88-3.40) for women. The cause-specific MRRs for persons with SMI and diabetes were lowest for malignant neoplasms (women: MRR = 1.98, 95% CI 1.64-2.39; men: MRR = 2.08, 95% CI 1.69-2.56) and highest for unnatural causes of death (women: MRR = 12.31, 95% CI 6.80-22.28; men: MRR = 7.89, 95% CI 5.51-11.29). The cumulative risks of death within 7 years of diabetes diagnosis for persons with SMI and diabetes were 15.0% (95% CI 12.4-17.6%) for those younger than 50 years, 30.7% (95% CI 27.8-33.4%) for those aged 50-69 years, and 63.8% (95% CI 58.9-68.2%) for those aged 70 years or older. Among persons suffering from both diseases, 33.4% of natural deaths were attributed to diabetes and 14% of natural deaths were attributed to the interaction between diabetes and SMI. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term mortality is high for persons with SMI and diabetes. This calls for effective intervention from a coordinated and collaborating healthcare system.

Effect of a participant-driven health education programme in primary care for people with hyperglycaemia detected by screening: 3-year results from the Ready to Act randomized controlled trial (nested within the ADDITION-Denmark study).

AIM: To assess whether a 12-week participant-driven health education programme offered to individuals with screening-detected hyperglycaemia in Danish primary care would lead to improvements in cardiovascular risk factors, health behaviour and patient-reported outcomes after 3 years. METHODS: We conducted a randomized controlled trial in 509 patients with screening-detected hyperglycaemia (impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance or type 2 diabetes) from 33 general practices in Denmark. Individuals were pre-randomized to receive (i) routine care (n = 187), or (ii) an invitation to participate in the Ready to Act health education programme (n = 322). The programme was delivered over 12 weeks in primary care and focused on motivation, action experience, informed decision-making and social involvement to promote health behaviour change. The primary outcome was 10-year modelled cardiovascular risk. RESULTS: Of 322 individuals, 123 (38%) received the intervention and 436/509 individuals (86%) returned for follow-up assessment. There was no difference between the trial groups in modelled cardiovascular risk at 3 years (relative difference: 1.01; 95% CI: 0.84 to 1.23). Total cholesterol was lower (-0.24mmol/l, 95% CI: -0.45 to -0.03, P = 0.027), and patient activation was higher in the intervention than in the control group (5.3, 95% CI: 0.97 to 9.7). No other between-group differences were observed for any cardiovascular risk factor, health behaviour or patient-reported outcome variables. Subgroup analyses suggested that the intervention was more beneficial in those with impaired fasting glucose/impaired glucose tolerance than in those with type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSION: For patients with screening-detected hyperglycaemia, a participant-driven health education programme was not associated with improvements in most clinical, behavioural and patient-reported outcomes after 3 years of follow-up.

Does early intensive multifactorial therapy reduce modelled cardiovascular risk in individuals with screen-detected diabetes? Results from the ADDITION-Europe cluster randomized trial.

AIMS: Little is known about the long-term effects of intensive multifactorial treatment early in the diabetes disease trajectory. In the absence of long-term data on hard outcomes, we described change in 10-year modelled cardiovascular risk in the 5 years following diagnosis, and quantified the impact of intensive treatment on 10-year modelled cardiovascular risk at 5 years. METHODS: In a pragmatic, cluster-randomized, parallel-group trial in Denmark, the Netherlands and the UK, 3057 people with screen-detected Type 2 diabetes were randomized by general practice to receive (1) routine care of diabetes according to national guidelines (1379 patients) or (2) intensive multifactorial target-driven management (1678 patients). Ten-year modelled cardiovascular disease risk was calculated at baseline and 5 years using the UK Prospective Diabetes Study Risk Engine (version 3ß). RESULTS: Among 2101 individuals with complete data at follow up (73.4%), 10-year modelled cardiovascular disease risk was 27.3% (sd 13.9) at baseline and 21.3% (sd 13.8) at 5-year follow-up (intensive treatment group difference -6.9, sd 9.0; routine care group difference -5.0, sd 12.2). Modelled 10-year cardiovascular disease risk was lower in the intensive treatment group compared with the routine care group at 5 years, after adjustment for baseline cardiovascular disease risk and clustering (-2.0; 95% CI -3.1 to -0.9). CONCLUSIONS: Despite increasing age and diabetes duration, there was a decline in modelled cardiovascular disease risk in the 5 years following diagnosis. Compared with routine care, 10-year modelled cardiovascular disease risk was lower in the intensive treatment group at 5 years. Our results suggest that patients benefit from intensive treatment early in the diabetes disease trajectory, where the rate of cardiovascular disease risk progression may be slowed.

Reproducibility of ultrasonography for assessing abdominal fat distribution in a population at high risk of diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Visceral fat plays an important role in the development of metabolic disease independently of the effect of overall abdominal fat. Ultrasonography is an accessible method of accurately assessing abdominal fat distribution in epidemiological studies, but few details about the reproducibility of this method have been published. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the reproducibility of ultrasonography in the assessment of abdominal fat distribution in a population at high risk of type 2 diabetes. DESIGN AND METHODS: Ultrasonography was used to estimate visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fat. Intra- and interobserver variation, short-term variation and variation between estimates in the fasting and non-fasting state were examined in three samples of 30, 33 and 23 participants from the ADDITION-PRO study. A variance components model was used to calculate intra- and interobserver variation, and Bland-Altman plots were drawn for all three substudies. RESULTS: Coefficients of variation for intra- and interobserver variation were in the range 3.4-6.1%, except for interobserver variation for subcutaneous fat (9.5%). Short-term variation over a median of 35 days had a coefficient of variation of 15%. The effect of a meal was primarily on the visceral estimates and did not extend beyond the first postprandial hour. Non-fasting visceral estimates were larger than fasting estimates. CONCLUSION: Both visceral and subcutaneous fat can be estimated with ultrasonography with adequate intra- and interobserver reproducibility by clinical researchers with limited training, making it a feasible method of assessing abdominal fat distribution in epidemiological studies.

The pro-inflammatory biomarker soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) is associated with incident type 2 diabetes among overweight but not obese individuals with impaired glucose regulation: effect modification by smoking and body weight status.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Recent evidence links the soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR), a stable biomarker of systemic immune activation, to several chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes. suPAR is also associated with adiposity and smoking. We hypothesised that this biomarker would be linked to incident type 2 diabetes in individuals with impaired glucose regulation and that this association would be modified by smoking and body weight status. METHODS: The study included 1,933 participants with impaired glucose regulation, who were drawn from the Danish arm of the Anglo-Danish-Dutch Study of Intensive Treatment in People with Screen-Detected Diabetes in Primary Care (ADDITION) and for whom data on suPAR, BMI and smoking were available. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the odds for incident type 2 diabetes per twofold increase in suPAR levels. Interactions between both smoking and body weight status and suPAR were tested. RESULTS: During a 3-year follow-up (599 incident diabetes cases), there was a 48% overall increase in the odds of developing type 2 diabetes per twofold increase in suPAR (p = 0.006). This association was modified by body weight status in overweight, but not in obese individuals (OR 2.36, 95% CI 1.48, 3.76 in overweight group), and by smoking status (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.20, 3.51 in non-smokers). After adjustment for other diabetes risk factors, the association between suPAR and type 2 diabetes was attenuated in the whole sample and among non-smokers, but remained robust among overweight participants. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: suPAR may be a good novel biomarker for systemic sub-clinical inflammation and immune activation linked to incident type 2 diabetes risk in overweight individuals and non-smokers. The observed interactions with adiposity and smoking should be investigated further.

Impact of early detection and treatment of diabetes on the 6-year prevalence of cardiac autonomic neuropathy in people with screen-detected diabetes: ADDITION-Denmark, a cluster-randomised study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: There is limited evidence on how multifactorial treatment improves outcomes of diabetes when initiated in the lead time between detection by screening and diagnosis in routine clinical practice. Cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) in people with diabetes indicates widespread damage to the autonomic nervous system, which may severely affect health and quality of life. We examined effects of early detection and subsequent intensive treatment of type 2 diabetes in primary care on the prevalence of CAN at the 6-year follow-up examination in a pragmatic cluster-randomised parallel group trial. METHODS: One hundred and ninety general practices were randomised to deliver either intensive multifactorial treatment (IT) or routine care (RC) as recommended by national guidelines to patients with type 2 diabetes, identified through a stepwise screening programme in the primary care setting. 1533 people (IT, n = 910; RC, n = 623) were identified and included. At the 6-year follow-up examination, measures of CAN were applied in an unselected subsample of 777 participants using heart rate variability analysis and standard tests of CAN. RESULTS: At the 6-year follow-up examination, the prevalence of early CAN was 15.1% in the RC group and 15.5% in the IT group, while manifest CAN was present in 7.1% and 7.3%, respectively. We found no statistically significant effect of intensive treatment on the prevalence of CAN compared with routine care. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In the Danish arm of the ADDITION Study, signs of CAN were highly prevalent 6 years after a screening-based diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Intensive multifactorial treatment did not significantly affect the prevalence of CAN compared with routine care. However, at follow-up the level of medication was also high in the RC group.

Does early intensive multifactorial treatment reduce total cardiovascular burden in individuals with screen-detected diabetes? Findings from the ADDITION-Europe cluster-randomized trial.

AIMS: To describe the total cardiovascular burden (cardiovascular morbidity or mortality, revascularization or non-traumatic amputation) in individuals with screen-detected diabetes in the ADDITION-Europe trial and to quantify the impact of the intervention on multiple cardiovascular events over 5 years. METHODS: In a pragmatic, cluster-randomized, parallel-group trial in four centres (Denmark; Cambridge, UK; the Netherlands; and Leicester, UK), 343 general practices were randomized to screening plus routine care (n = 1379 patients), or screening and promotion of target-driven, intensive treatment of multiple risk factors (n = 1678). We estimated the effect of the intervention on multiple cardiovascular events after diagnosis of diabetes using the Wei, Lin and Weissfeld method. RESULTS: Over 5.3 years, 167 individuals had exactly one cardiovascular event, 53 exactly two events, and 18 three or more events. The incidence rates (95% CI) of first events and any event per 1000 person-years were 14.6 (12.8-16.6) and 20.4 (18.2-22.6), respectively. There were non-significant reductions in the risk of a first (hazard ratio 0.83, 95% CI 0.65-1.05) and second primary endpoint (hazard ratio 0.70, 95% CI 0.43-1.12). The overall average hazard ratio for any event was 0.77 (95% CI 0.58-1.02). CONCLUSIONS: Early intensive multifactorial treatment was not associated with a significant reduction in total cardiovascular burden at 5 years. Focusing on first events in cardiovascular disease prevention trials underestimates the total cardiovascular burden to patients and the health service.

Short-term impact of HbA1c on morbidity and all-cause mortality in people with type 2 diabetes: a Danish population-based observational study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: In a population-based setting, we investigated whether diabetes-related morbidity and all-cause mortality within 2 years of HbA(1c) measurement were associated with that HbA(1c) level in individuals with type 2 diabetes. The main objective was to compare outcomes in those with HbA(1c) ≥ and <7% (53 mmol/mol). METHODS: Individuals with type 2 diabetes from Aarhus County, Denmark, were identified from public data files in a 3 year period (2001-2003). Stratifying the 17,760 individuals by HbA(1c), we estimated HRs for diabetes-related morbidities and all-cause mortality using Cox regression. Results were also stratified by treatment modality. RESULTS: In total, 1,805 individuals experienced at least one diabetes-related morbidity and 1,859 individuals died. In general, the HRs in adjusted analyses of diabetes-related morbidity and mortality were increased for HbA(1c) ≥ 7% (53 mmol/mol): morbidity, HR 1.48 (95% CI 1.34, 1.63); and mortality, HR 1.26 (95% CI 1.15, 1.39). On grouping individuals according to HbA(1c) <5% (31 mmol/mol), 5.0-5.9% (31-41 mmol/mol), 6.0-6.9% (42-52 mmol/mol), 7.0-7.9% (53-63 mmol/mol), 8.0-8.9% (64-74 mmol/mol) and ≥ 9% (75 mmol/mol), the HRs for mortality formed a U shape, with HbA(1c) 6.0-6.9% (42-52 mmol/mol) at the lowest point. For diabetes-related morbidity, a dose-response pattern appeared (lowest for HbA(1c) < 5% [31 mmol/mol]). Patterns of HR differed with treatment modality. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: An HbA(1c) level ≥ 7% (53 mmol/mol) was associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Both high and very low levels of HbA(1c) were associated with increased mortality. A dose-response pattern appeared for morbidity. The impact of HbA(1c) level on morbidity and mortality depended on treatment modality.

Homozygous carriers of the G allele of rs4664447 of the glucagon gene (GCG) are characterised by decreased fasting and stimulated levels of insulin, glucagon and glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The glucagon gene (GCG) encodes several hormones important for energy metabolism: glucagon, oxyntomodulin and glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 and -2. Variants in GCG may associate with type 2 diabetes, obesity and/or related metabolic traits. METHODS: GCG was re-sequenced as a candidate gene in 865 European individuals. Twenty-nine variants were identified. Four variants that were considered to have a likelihood for altered functionality: rs4664447, rs7581952, Ile158Val and Trp169Ter, were genotyped in 17,584 Danes. RESULTS: When examined in 5,760 treatment-naive individuals, homozygous carriers of the low frequency (minor allele frequency 2.3%) G allele of rs4664447, predicted to disrupt an essential splice enhancer binding site, had lower levels of fasting plasma glucose (mean ± SD, 4.8 ± 1.2 vs 5.5 ± 0.8 mmol/l, p = 0.004); fasting serum insulin (22 ± 14 vs 42 ± 27 pmol/l, p = 0.04); glucose-stimulated serum insulin (159 ± 83 vs 290 ± 183 pmol/l, p = 0.01) and adult height (165 ± 10 vs 172 ± 9 cm, p = 0.0009) compared with A allele carriers. During oral glucose tolerance and hyperglycaemic arginine stimulation tests, the plasma AUC for GLP-1 (730 ± 69 vs 1,334 ± 288 pmol/l × min, p = 0.0002) and basal and stimulated levels of serum insulin and plasma glucagon were ∼50% decreased (p < 0.001) among three homozygous carriers compared with nine matched wild-type carriers. rs7581952, Ile158Val and Trp169Ter (where 'Ter' indicates 'termination') variants of GCG did not significantly associate or co-segregate with the metabolic traits examined. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Re-sequencing of GCG revealed a low frequency intronic variant, rs4664447, and follow-up physiological studies suggest that this variant in homozygous form may cause decreased fasting and stimulated levels of insulin, glucagon and GLP-1. Overall, our findings suggest that variation in GCG has no major impact on carbohydrate metabolism in the study populations examined.

Screening for type 2 diabetes. Lessons from the ADDITION-Europe study.

AIMS: To describe and compare attendance rates and the proportions of people identified with Type 2 diabetes mellitus in people with previously unknown diabetes who participated in screening programmes undertaken in general practice in the UK, Denmark and the Netherlands as part of the ADDITION-Europe study. METHODS: In Cambridge, routine computer data searches were conducted to identify individuals aged 40-69 years at high risk of Type 2 diabetes using the Cambridge Diabetes Risk Score. In Denmark, the Danish Diabetes Risk Score was mailed to individuals aged 40-69 years, or completed by patients visiting their general practitice. In the Netherlands, the Hoorn Symptom Risk Questionnaire was mailed to individuals aged 50-69 years. In these three centres, high-risk individuals were invited to attend subsequent steps in the screening programme, including random blood glucose, HbA(1c) , fasting blood glucose and/or oral glucose tolerance test. In Leicester, eligible people aged 40-69 years were invited directly for an oral glucose tolerance test. In all centres, Type 2 diabetes was defined according to World Health Organization 1999 diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: Attendance rates ranged from 20.2% (oral glucose tolerance test in Leicester without pre-stratification) to 95.1% (random blood glucose in opportunistic screening in Denmark in high-risk people). The percentage of people with newly detected Type 2 diabetes from the target population ranged from 0.33% (Leicester) to 1.09% (the Netherlands). CONCLUSIONS: Screening for Type 2 diabetes was acceptable and feasible, but relatively few participants were diagnosed in all participating centres. Different strategies may be required to increase initial attendance and ensure completion of screening programmes.