Collaborative approaches to greenhouse gas inventory in higher education: Insights from the Universities Denmark Group.

The challenges faced by universities and private industry in estimating their emissions for decarbonisation are similar, but the task of linking emissions to university operations, namely procurement, is complex and time-consuming due to the wide range and types of purchases. Here, participatory action research is used to address these challenges, with a group of Danish universities to investigate the functions and improve the completeness of university GHG inventories. The research enabled knowledge sharing and collaboration, leading to a better understanding of the complexities and possibilities of GHG inventories. The main conclusions drawn from discussions are that the GHG inventory should serve multiple functions; an inward-facing decision support material, and an externally-facing communication tool. EXIOBASE, an environmentally extended input-output model, was identified as a useful tool for future inventories, particularly in procurement, due to its comprehensive spend-based assessment of purchases also relevant to universities. With more universities adopting spend-based practices, the presented conclusions shed light on potential risks of this method that have not yet been discussed in this context. A consensus on methodological trade-offs, relevant activities, and data considerations for a GHG inventory are reached and reflected on. As suppliers can increasingly deliver product specific climate related information, a data ontology is needed to appropriately incorporate supplier-specific data into consistent inventories without conflicting with methodological principles and upholding proprietary requirements of suppliers. Addressing challenges identified through this collaborative investigation will expand on the dialogue in the literature and help shape how universities conduct and use GHG inventories. Keywords: Sustainable university; Action Research; Consequential Attributional; GHG Protocol.

Environmental impact of the explosion of the Nord Stream pipelines.

Armed conflicts have, in addition to severe impacts on human lives and infrastructure, also impacts on the environment, which needs to be assessed and documented. On September the 26th 2022, unknown perpetrators deliberately ruptured the two gas pipelines Nord Stream 1 and 2 with four coordinated explosions near a major chemical munition dump site near the Danish island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. While the massive release of natural gas into atmosphere raised serious concerns concerning the contribution to climate change-this paper assesses the overlooked direct impact of the explosions on the marine ecosystem. Seals and porpoises within a radius of four km would be at high risk of being killed by the shockwave, while temporary impact on hearing would be expected up to 50 km away. As the Baltic Proper population of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) is critically endangered, the loss or serious injury of even a single individual is considered a significant impact on the population. The rupture moreover resulted in the resuspension of 250000 metric tons of heavily contaminated sediment from deep-sea sedimentary basin for over a week, resulting in unacceptable toxicological risks towards fish and other biota in 11 km3 water in the area for more than a month.

Suspect and non-target screening of semi-volatile emerging contaminants in indoor dust from Danish kindergartens.

Indoor dust is a sink of hundreds of organic chemicals, and humans may potentially be exposed to these via indoor activities. This study investigated potentially harmful semi-volatile organic contaminants in indoor dust from Danish kindergartens using suspect and non-target screening on gas chromatography (GC)-Orbitrap, supported by target analyses using GC-low resolution mass spectrometry (LRMS). A suspect list of 41 chemicals with one or more toxicological endpoints, i.e. endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity and allergenicity, known or suspected to be present in indoor dust, was established including phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers, flame retardants, bisphenols, biocides, UV filters and other plastic additives. Of these, 29 contaminants were detected in the indoor dust samples, also including several compounds that had been banned or restricted for years. In addition, 22 chemicals were tentatively identified via non-target screening. Several chemicals have not previously been detected in Danish indoor dust. Most of the detected chemicals are known to be potentially harmful for human health while hazard assessment of the remaining compounds indicated limited risks to human. However, children were not specifically considered in this hazard assessment.

Acute toxicity of organoarsenic chemical warfare agents to Danio rerio embryos.

During the 20th century, thousands of tons of munitions containing organoarsenic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) were dumped into oceans, seas and inland waters around the world. As a result, organoarsenic CWAs continue to leak from corroding munitions into sediments and their environmental concentrations are expected to peak over the next few decades. There remains, however, a lack of knowledge about their potential toxicity to aquatic vertebrates, such as fish. The aim of this study was to fill in this gap in research, by investigating the acute toxicity of organoarsenic CWAs on fish embryos, using the model species, Danio rerio. To estimate the acute toxicity thresholds of organoarsenic CWAs (Clark I, Adamsite, PDCA), a CWA-related compound (TPA), as well as four organoarsenic CWA degradation products (Clark I[ox], Adamsite[ox], PDCA[ox], TPA[ox]), standardized tests were performed following the OECD no. 236 Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity Test guidelines. Additionally, the detoxification response in D. rerio embryos was investigated by analysing the mRNA expression of five genes encoding antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, GPx, GR and GST). During the 96 h of exposure, organoarsenic CWAs induced lethal effects in D. rerio embryos at very low concentrations (classified as 1st category pollutants according to GHS categorization), and were therefore deemed to be serious environmental hazards. Although TPA and the four CWA degradation products caused no acute toxicity even at their maximum solubility, the transcription of antioxidant-related genes was altered upon exposure to these compounds, indicating the need for further testing for chronic toxicity. Incorporating the results of this study into ecological risk assessments will provide a more accurate prediction of the environmental hazards posed by CWA-related organoarsenicals.

Understanding ecotoxicological drivers and responses of freshwater green algae, Raphidocelis subcapitata, to cationic polyquaternium polymers.

Cationic polymer (CP) ecotoxicity is important to understand and investigate as they are widely used in industrial and consumer applications and have shown toxic effects in some aquatic organisms. CPs are identified as "polymers of concern" and are to be prioritized in upcoming regulatory reviews, (e.g., REACH). Algae have generally been found to be the most sensitive trophic level to CP. This study aimed at elucidating the magnitude of cationic polyquaternium toxicity towards algae and to understand key toxicological drivers. A suite of polyquaterniums with varying charge density (charged nitrogen moieties) and molecular weight were selected. Highly charged polyquaternium-6 and -16 were toxic towards the freshwater green microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata with ErC50-values ranging between 0.12 and 0.41 mg/L. Lower charge density polyquaternium-10 materials had much lower toxicity with ErC50 > 200 mg/L, suggesting that charge density is an important driver of algal toxicity. These levels of toxicity were in line with historic CP data in literature. Algal agglomeration was observed in all tests but was not linked with impacts on algal growth rate. However, agglomeration can pose challenges in the technical conduct of tests and can impair interpretation of results. The toxicity mitigation potential of humic acid was also explored. The addition of 2-20 mg/L humic acid completely mitigated PQ6 and PQ16 toxicity at concentrations higher than clean water ErC50-values. CP toxicity mitigation has also been observed in fish and invertebrate tests, suggesting that CP mitigation should be accounted for in all trophic levels within an environmental safety framework.

Environmental hazard of cationic polymers relevant in personal and consumer care products: A critical review.

Historically, polymers have been excluded from registration and evaluation under the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) program, the European chemical management program. Recently, interest has increased to include polymers. A tiered registration system has been envisioned and would begin with classes of polymers of greater interest based on certain properties. Cationic polymers are one such class. There is a pressing need to understand the quality and limitations of historical cationic polymer studies and to identify key sources of uncertainty in environmental hazard assessments so we can move toward scientifically robust analyses. To that end, we performed a critical review of the existing cationic polymer environmental effects literature to evaluate polymer characterization and test methodologies to understand how these parameters may affect test interpretation. The relationship between physicochemical parameters, acute and chronic toxicity, and relative trophic level sensitivity were explored. To advance our understanding of the environmental hazard and subsequent risk characterization of cationic polymers, there is a clear need for a consistent testing approach as many polymers are characterized as difficult-to-test substances. Experimental parameters such as dissolved organic carbon and solution renewal approaches can alter cationic polymer bioavailability and toxicity. It is recommended that OECD TG 23 "Aqueous-Phase Aquatic Toxicity Testing of Difficult Test Substances" testing considerations be applied when conducting environmental toxicity assays with cationic polymers. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:312-325. © 2021 SETAC.

Understanding Ecotoxicological Responses of Fish Embryos and Gill Cells to Cationic Polymers.

Cationic polymers are considered by the scientific and regulatory communities as a group of greater interest amongst the polymers in commerce. As a category, relatively little hazard information is available in the public literature. Very few examples exist of published, high-quality polymer characterization and quantification of exposure. In the present study we describe a series of fish embryo toxicity (FET) and fish gill cytotoxicity assays used to establish a baseline understanding of several representative polyquaternium categories (PQ-6, PQ-10, PQ-16) in animal alternative models, accompanied by high-quality analytical characterization. Materials were chosen to encompass a range of molecular weights and charge densities to determine the influence of test material characteristics on toxicity. Both chorionated and dechorionated FET assays were generally similar to published acute fish toxicity data. Toxicity was correlated with cationic polymer charge density, and not with molecular weight, and was a combination of physical effects and likely toxicity at the site of action. Toxicity could be ameliorated by humic acid in a dose-dependent manner. Fish gill cytotoxicity results were orders of magnitude less sensitive than FET test responses. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2259-2272. © 2022 SETAC.

Investigation of long-term hazards of chemical weapon agents in the environment of Sardasht area, Iran.

The present study aimed to investigate the persistence and existence of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and related dissipation products in the environment of Sardasht area, Iran. Three types of environmental samples including water, soil, and native local plant materials were collected and analyzed. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in the electron impact ionization mode has been developed for the separation, screening, identification, and qualification of chemicals after the sample preparation methods. The initial results revealed that no trace of related compounds or CWAs was detected in the soil and water samples. However, trace amounts of some degradation products of blistering agents like mustard gas (HD) and lewisite were found in a tree wood from a house subjected to chemical attack as well as in barley samples (a mixture of leaves and root) collected from an agricultural field in the area indicating chronic low exposure to the environment and people. In order to validate the applied extraction procedures, ethylene glycol was spiked to some of the samples including groundwater, surface soil, grape, and alfalfa plants. All the recoveries were in the range of 83.6-107.4% with the relative standard deviations varying from 4.9% to 12.4% (n = 3) successfully.

Green Chemistry in the Synthesis of Pharmaceuticals.

The principles of green chemistry (GC) can be comprehensively implemented in green synthesis of pharmaceuticals by choosing no solvents or green solvents (preferably water), alternative reaction media, and consideration of one-pot synthesis, multicomponent reactions (MCRs), continuous processing, and process intensification approaches for atom economy and final waste reduction. The GC's execution in green synthesis can be performed using a holistic design of the active pharmaceutical ingredient's (API) life cycle, minimizing hazards and pollution, and capitalizing the resource efficiency in the synthesis technique. Thus, the presented review accounts for the comprehensive exploration of GC's principles and metrics, an appropriate implication of those ideas in each step of the reaction schemes, from raw material to an intermediate to the final product's synthesis, and the final execution of the synthesis into scalable industry-based production. For real-life examples, we have discussed the synthesis of a series of established generic pharmaceuticals, starting with the raw materials, and the intermediates of the corresponding pharmaceuticals. Researchers and industries have thoughtfully instigated a green synthesis process to control the atom economy and waste reduction to protect the environment. We have extensively discussed significant reactions relevant for green synthesis, one-pot cascade synthesis, MCRs, continuous processing, and process intensification, which may contribute to the future of green and sustainable synthesis of APIs.

Acute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna.

Sea dumping of chemical warfare (CW) took place worldwide during the 20th century. Submerged CW included metal bombs and casings that have been exposed for 50-100 years of corrosion and are now known to be leaking. Therefore, the arsenic-based chemical warfare agents (CWAs), pose a potential threat to the marine ecosystems. The aim of this research was to support a need for real-data measurements for accurate risk assessments and categorization of threats originating from submerged CWAs. This has been achieved by providing a broad insight into arsenic-based CWAs acute toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. Standard tests were performed to provide a solid foundation for acute aquatic toxicity threshold estimations of CWA: Lewisite, Adamsite, Clark I, phenyldichloroarsine (PDCA), CWA-related compounds: TPA, arsenic trichloride and four arsenic-based CWA degradation products. Despite their low solubility, during the 48 h exposure, all CWA caused highly negative effects on Daphnia magna. PDCA was very toxic with 48 h D. magna LC50 at 0.36 µg × L-1 and Lewisite with EC50 at 3.2 µg × L-1. Concentrations at which no immobilization effects were observed were slightly above the analytical Limits of Detection (LOD) and Quantification (LOQ). More water-soluble CWA degradation products showed no effects at concentrations up to 100 mg × L-1.

Acute aquatic toxicity of sulfur mustard and its degradation products to Daphnia magna.

Sulphur mustard (HD) was the most widely produced chemical warfare agent (CWA) in the history of chemical warfare (CW). Simultaneously, the loads of HD account as by far the largest fraction of the sea-dumped CW. Nowadays its presence in the marine ecosystems recognized as a serious threat for marine users and maritime industries. Although, during over a decade of research much has been done to assess the environmental threats linked with underwater chemical munitions. There are, however, essential gaps in scientific knowledge including scarce information about the aquatic toxicity thresholds of HD and its degradation products. Standardized biotests were performed according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Test No. 202: Daphnia sp. Acute Immobilisation Test guidelines. Obtained results provide a solid foundation for comparison and categorisation of threats of HD and its degradation products. With the D. magna LC50 aquatic acute toxicity threshold at as low as 224 ± 12 µg × L-1, 1,2,5-trithiepane is very toxic, being one of the most toxic CWA degradation products that have been investigated up to date. It exhibits stronger effects than 1,4,5-oxadithiepane and diluted HD that turn out to be toxic. In total, the toxicity of 7 compounds has been estimated. Whenever possible, toxicity thresholds were compared with previously existing data originating from different biotests and mathematical modelling.

Mode of Action Classifications in the EnviroTox Database: Development and Implementation of a Consensus MOA Classification.

Multiple mode of action (MOA) frameworks have been developed in aquatic ecotoxicology, mainly based on fish toxicity. These frameworks provide information on a key determinant of chemical toxicity, but the MOA categories and level of specificity remain unique to each of the classification schemes. The present study aimed to develop a consensus MOA assignment within EnviroTox, a curated in vivo aquatic toxicity database, based on the following MOA classification schemes: Verhaar (modified) framework, Assessment Tool for Evaluating Risk, Toxicity Estimation Software Tool, and OASIS. The MOA classifications from each scheme were first collapsed into one of 3 categories: non-specifically acting (i.e., narcosis), specifically acting, or nonclassifiable. Consensus rules were developed based on the degree of concordance among the 4 individual MOA classifications to attribute a consensus MOA to each chemical. A confidence rank was also assigned to the consensus MOA classification based on the degree of consensus. Overall, 40% of the chemicals were classified as narcotics, 17% as specifically acting, and 43% as unclassified. Sixty percent of chemicals had a medium to high consensus MOA assignment. When compared to empirical acute toxicity data, the general trend of specifically acting chemicals being more toxic is clearly observed for both fish and invertebrates but not for algae. EnviroTox is the first approach to establishing a high-level consensus across 4 computationally and structurally distinct MOA classification schemes. This consensus MOA classification provides both a transparent understanding of the variation between MOA classification schemes and an added certainty of the MOA assignment. In terms of regulatory relevance, a reliable understanding of MOA can provide information that can be useful for the prioritization (ranking) and risk assessment of chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2294-2304. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Ecotoxicological Modeling, Ranking and Prioritization of Pharmaceuticals Using QSTR and i-QSTTR Approaches: Application of 2D and Fragment Based Descriptors.

There is a huge lack of experimental data on ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals, while existing resources are insufficient to gather these data against all possible environmental endpoints. Computational tools such as quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) can help us to a great extent to overcome this problem through filling of data gaps. In the current study, QSTR models have been developed for toxicity of 260 diverse pharmaceuticals on three different trophic level species namely algae, daphnia and fish, using partial least squares (PLS) regression approach with 2D descriptors selected through a genetic algorithm approach in order to study underlying chemical features responsible for the observed acute toxicity. The final obtained statistically reliable QSTR models were extensively validated following the OECD guidelines. Interspecies quantitative structure-toxicity-toxicity (QSTTR) models were also developed using genetic algorithm followed by multiple linear regression (GA-MLR) approach to check for the pattern of responses observed as we move across the hierarchy of genetics in different taxonomical class. The obtained interspecies models were finally utilized to fill the data gaps for 260 pharmaceuticals, where experimental data were missing for at least one of the endpoints. Finally, a prioritized list for 7106 existing drug like substances was prepared by predicting their acute toxicity using developed QSTR models.

Deep sea habitats in the chemical warfare dumping areas of the Baltic Sea.

The Baltic Sea is a severely disturbed marine ecosystem that has previously been used as a dumping ground for Chemical Warfare Agents (CW). The presence of unexploded underwater ordnance is an additional risk factor for offshore activities and an environmental risk for the natural resources of the sea. In this paper, the focus is on descriptions of the marine habitat based on the observations arising from studies linked to the CHEMSEA, MODUM and DAIMON projects. Investigated areas of Bornholm, Gotland and Gdansk Deeps are similarly affected by the Baltic Sea eutrophication, however, at depths greater than 70m several differences in local hydrological regimes and pore-water heavy metal concentrations between those basins were observed. During the lifespan of presented studies, we were able to observe the effects of Major Baltic Inflow, that started in December 2014, on local biota and their habitats, especially in the Bornholm Deep area. Reappearance of several meiofauna taxa and one macrofauna specimen was observed approximately one year after this phenomenon, however it's ecological effects already disappeared in March 2017. According to our findings and to the EUNIS Habitat Classification, the three reviewed areas should be characterized as Deep Sea Muddy Sands, while the presence of suspicious bomb-like objects both beneath and on top of the sediments confirms their CW dumpsite status.

Biocide Runoff from Building Facades: Degradation Kinetics in Soil.

Biocides are common additives in building materials. In-can and film preservatives in polymer-resin render and paint, as well as wood preservatives are used to protect facade materials from microbial spoilage. Biocides leach from the facade material with driving rain, leading to highly polluted runoff water (up to several mg L-1 biocides) being infiltrated into the soil surrounding houses. In the present study the degradation rates in soil of 11 biocides used for the protection of building materials were determined in laboratory microcosms. The results show that some biocides are degraded rapidly in soil (e.g., isothiazolinones: T1/2 < 10 days) while others displayed higher persistence (e.g., terbutryn, triazoles: T1/2 ≫ 120 days). In addition, mass balances of terbutryn and octylisothiazolinone were determined, including nine (terbutryn) and seven (octylisothiazolinone) degradation products, respectively. The terbutryn mass balance could be closed over the entire study period of 120 days and showed that relative persistent metabolites were formed, while the mass balances for octylisothiazolinone could not be closed. Octylisothiazolinone degradation products did not accumulate over time suggesting that the missing fraction was mineralized. Microtox-tests revealed that degradation products were less toxic toward the bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri than their parent compounds. Rain is mobilizing these biocides from the facades and transports them to the surrounding soils; thus, rainfall events control how often new input to the soil occurs. Time intervals between rainfall events in Northern Europe are shorter than degradation half-lives even for many rapidly degraded biocides. Consequently, residues of some biocides are likely to be continuously present due to repeated input and most biocides can be considered as "pseudo-persistent"-contaminants in this context. This was verified by (sub)urban soil screening, where concentrations of up to 0.1 µg g-1 were detected for parent compounds as well as terbutryn degradation products in soils below biocide treated facades.

Database support for adaptation to climate change: An assessment of web-based portals across scales.

The widely recognized increase in greenhouse gas emissions is necessitating adaptation to a changing climate, and policies are being developed and implemented worldwide, across sectors, and between government scales globally. The aim of this article is to reflect on one of the major challenges: facilitating and sharing information on the next adaptation practices. Web portals (i.e., web sites) for disseminating information are important tools in meeting this challenge, and therefore, we assessed the characteristics of select major portals across multiple scales. We found that there is a rather limited number of case studies available in the portals-between 900 and 1000 in total-with 95 that include cost information and 195 that include the participation of stakeholders globally. Portals are rarely cited by researchers, suggesting a suboptimal connection between the practical, policy-related, and scientific development of adaptation. The government portals often lack links on search results between US and European Union (EU) web sites, for example. With significant investments and policy development emerging in both the United States and the European Union, there is great potential to share information via portals. Moreover, there is the possibility of better connecting the practical adaptation experience from bottom-up projects to the science of adaptation. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2016;12:627-631. © 2016 SETAC.

It is time to develop ecological thresholds of toxicological concern to assist environmental hazard assessment.

The threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept is well established for assessing human safety of food-contact substances and has been reapplied for a variety of endpoints, including carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and reproductive toxicity. The TTC establishes an exposure level for chemicals below which no appreciable risk to human health or the environment is expected, based on a de minimis value for toxicity identified for many chemicals. Threshold of toxicological concern approaches have benefits for screening-level risk assessments, including the potential for rapid decision-making, fully utilizing existing knowledge, reasonable conservativeness for chemicals used in lower volumes (low production volume chemicals (e.g., < 1 t/yr), and reduction or elimination of unnecessary animal tests. Higher production volume chemicals (>1 t/yr) would in principle always require specific information because of the presumed higher exposure potential. The TTC approach has found particular favor in the assessment of chemicals used in cosmetics and personal care products, as well as other chemicals traditionally used in low volumes. Use of the TTC in environmental safety is just beginning, and initial attempts are being published. Key questions focus on hazard extrapolation of diverse taxa across trophic levels, importance of mode of action, and whether safe concentrations for ecosystems estimated from acute or chronic toxicity data are equally useful and in what contexts. The present study provides an overview of the theoretical basis for developing an ecological (eco)-TTC, with an initial exploration of chemical assessment and boundary conditions for use. An international collaboration under the International Life Sciences Institute Health and Environmental Sciences Institute has been established to address challenges related to developing and applying useful eco-TTC concepts.