Impact of plastic bags on the benthic system of a tropical estuary: An experimental study.

Plastic bags are among the most discarded waste items as they are generally only used once and are often improperly eliminated and transported by rivers and estuaries to the ocean. We developed an experimental design to mimic the effect of plastic bag deposition in a tropical estuary and investigated its short-term impact on benthic community structure. We observed a significant influence of the presence of plastic bags on the abundance, richness and diversity of benthic fauna after an eight-week exposure period. Plastic bags acted as a barrier and interfered in processes that occur at the water-sediment interface, such as organic matter and silt-clay deposition. Our results indicate that plastic bags, in addition to directly affecting benthic fauna, may alter processes such as carbon burying, known as "blue carbon", thus making its storage in the sediment more difficult.

Climate change scenarios of increased CO2 and temperature affect a coral reef peracarid (Crustacea) community.

The effects of applying scenarios of increasing CO2 and temperature, using a mesocosm experiment, on the structure of a macrofaunal coral reef peracarid community were investigated for the first time. Samples were taken from artificial substrate units (ASUs), colonized by macrofauna from the coral reef subtidal zone of Serrambi beach (Brazil). In the laboratory, the ASUs were exposed to a Control (Ctrl) treatment and three climate change Scenarios (Sc) (increase of T° of 0.6, 2, and 3 °C, and pH drop of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.7 units for Sc I, II and III respectively), and were collected after 15 and 29 days of exposure. Our results showed that the effect of different temperature and acidity levels under experimental climate change scenarios significantly impacted density, diversity and community structure. Major differences were observed when applying Sc II and III. Peracarida also showed a reduction in specimen number when comparing both exposure times. Overall, Amphipoda, Tanaidacea and Isopoda communities all displayed a reduction in the number of individuals for both scenarios and exposure time factors, while Cumacea responded negatively in all scenarios, suggesting that these individuals were more sensitive to the experimental conditions. Dissimilarities were greatest between the Ctrl and Sc III, particularly after 29 days. Two species, Elasmopus longipropodus (Amphipoda) and Chondrochelia dubia (Tanaidacea), greatly contributed to these dissimilarities. This study demonstrates that even an intermediate level of increasing ocean temperature and acidification will negatively impact the structure of the Peracarida macrofaunal community on coral reefs. Also demonstrates that different species of Peracarida exhibit divergent response patterns, highlighting the specific responses of these taxa to the impacts of environmental stressors. These outcomes highlight the importance of studying the effects of climate change on benthic peracarids, especially because they incubate their eggs. This characteristic can reduce migration potential and thereby reduces the individual's ability to disperse in response to a changing environment.

The effects of plastic bags presence on a macrobenthic community in a polluted estuary.

The damaging effects of marine debris on wildlife are often noted through the observation of animals that ingest and/or become entangled in debris. Yet, few studies have evaluated the effects of marine litter on benthic habitats. The aim of this study was to investigate if the presence of plastic bags has any effect on benthic macrofauna in an estuary located in an urban area in North-eastern Brazil. Biogeochemical and macrofauna samples were obtained from 10 different deposition locations (location factor), under, border and distant (treatment factor) from plastic bags. The results did not show any significant alterations in the biogeochemical parameters of the sediment due to treatment effect except for summed microphytobenthic pigments. The macrobenthic community structure responded to treatment. The greatest dissimilarity (34%) was between samples that were under and distant. Effects occurred despite the high dynamics of deposition-resuspension of plastic bags and the dominance of opportunistic species. Changes in community structure are a complex result of plastic bags effects on species ecological interactions in the polluted estuarine environment, attracting deposit feeders, diminishing suspension feeders and providing mechanical protection against predation by seabirds.

Evaluation of Meiofauna in the Hyporheic Zone of the Beberibe River, Pernambuco, Brazil.

The hyporheic environment is composed of a rich meiofauna that depends on water flow, organic matter, and oxygen. The concentration of meiofauna varies spatially (horizontal and vertical) and temporally. Several processes occur at this interface (groundwater and surface water), including biogeochemical processes involving meiofauna. A study of the hyporheic meiofauna community in the sediments of the Beberibe River, in Brazil, was conducted. Meiofauna attained peak densities of 942.8 organisms/10 cm2, with organisms distributed over six taxa, with 98% of them represented by rotifers, nematodes, and annelids. Density was higher in the dry season with an average of 653.1 organisms/10 cm2, and in more superficial sediments with an average of 739.6 organisms/10 cm2. Greater densities were found in coarser sediment with a higher percentage of organic matter. A river bank filtration (RBF) pilot project has been installed, with good results in the attenuation of contaminants and pathogens.

PAMPs, PRRs, effectors and R-genes associated with citrus-pathogen interactions.

BACKGROUND: Recent application of molecular-based technologies has considerably advanced our understanding of complex processes in plant-pathogen interactions and their key components such as PAMPs, PRRs, effectors and R-genes. To develop novel control strategies for disease prevention in citrus, it is essential to expand and consolidate our knowledge of the molecular interaction of citrus plants with their pathogens. SCOPE: This review provides an overview of our understanding of citrus plant immunity, focusing on the molecular mechanisms involved in the interactions with viruses, bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and vectors related to the following diseases: tristeza, psorosis, citrus variegated chlorosis, citrus canker, huanglongbing, brown spot, post-bloom, anthracnose, gummosis and citrus root rot.

Foraging with finesse: A hard-fruit-eating primate selects the weakest areas as bite sites.

OBJECTIVES: Fruit husks are rarely uniformly hard, varying in penetrability via sulci and changes in thickness. We tested whether a hard-food specialist primate i) bites randomly on food fruit husk surfaces to access seeds, or ii) selects areas most easily penetrated by canines. We consider this would occur so as to minimize deployed mechanical force, energetic expenditure and risk of dental breakage when feeding. METHODS: A sulcus is the natural line of weakness where a dehiscent fruit breaks open. Using fruits dentally opened for seeds by golden-back uacaris (Cacajao ouakary) we: 1) analysed bite mark distribution on surface of four fruits types (hard-with-sulcus, soft-with-sulcus, hard-no-sulcus, soft-no-sulcus); 2) quantified the force needed to penetrate hard and soft fruits at sulci and elsewhere on fruit surface; 3) measured fruit wall thickness and correlated it with bite-mark distribution in all four categories of fruit. RESULTS: 1) Bite marks were distributed at random only on surfaces of soft fruits. For other fruits types, bite locations were concentrated at the thinnest areas of husk, either over the entire surface (non-sulcate fruits), or at sulci (sulcate fruits). 2) For hard-husked fruits, areas where uacaris concentrated their bites were significantly easier to penetrate than those where they did not. CONCLUSIONS: This hard-fruit feeding specialist primate is not biting at random on the surface of diet fruits. To access seeds they are focusing on those areas requiring less force to penetrate. This may be to save energy, to minimize the risk of breaking teeth used in food processing, or a combination of both. The study shows, for the first time, the subtlety by which these powerfully-jawed animals process their diet items.

An Improved Technique Using Dental Prostheses for Field Quantification of the Force Required by Primates for the Dental Penetration of Fruit.

Tooth morphology is an important determinant of primate diet, setting potential limits on processable item size and material properties. Plunger-based commercial fruit firmness testers (penetrometers) have been used to estimate primate diet item hardness and, by proxy, bite force required for penetration. However, geometric forms and surface areas of penetrometer plungers and primate teeth differ considerably. Accurate bite force estimation is especially important with pitheciine primates as these penetrate fruit pericarps with their canines. To achieve more realistic bite force measures, we replaced a fruit penetrometer's standard plunger with a Cacajao calvus canine prosthesis. We compared indentation and penetration values for Hevea spruceana (Euphorbiaceae; hard-pericarp) and Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae; soft-pericarp) fruits (both natural Cacajao foods), and standard penetrometer head and canine prosthesis values for penetrating H. spruceana sulci. Compared to the canine prosthesis, a standard head overestimated the force needed to indent and penetrate H. spruceana fruit by more than twofold and, due to greater width, could not effectively penetrate a sulcus: sulcal penetrability data were easily retrieved with the canine prosthesis. We believe this new approach using dental prostheses has potential in the analysis of primate foraging mechanisms, especially for pitheciines for which canines are of paramount importance in accessing food.

Estuarine macrofauna responses to continuous in situ nutrient addition on a tropical mudflat.

A field experiment to assess the effects of continuous nutrient addition on the macrobenthic community was carried out on an estuarine mudflat on the northeast coast of Brazil. The experiment began on 5 October 2005 and ended on 8 February 2006. Macrofauna was compared at approximately four-week intervals in triplicate plots with three levels (Control - C, Low Dose - LD and High Dose - HD) of weekly fertilizer additions for 17 weeks. Inorganic fertilizer (N-P-K) was applied on nine randomly defined quadrangular plots (4m(2) each). All measurements were calculated from species abundances. Multivariate analyses as well as the univariate indices (richness, abundance and Shannon-Wiener index) showed statistically significant differences between the enriched and control areas during the period of the experiment. The expected gradual response based on the succession model of Pearson and Rosenberg was not observed. The nutrient doses used were high enough to cause severe decreases in abundance, richness and evenness, and an increase in dominance.

Macrobenthic community for assessment of estuarine health in tropical areas (Northeast, Brazil): review of macrofauna classification in ecological groups and application of AZTI Marine Biotic Index.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the ecological quality of tropical estuaries on the northeastern coast of Brazil using the AMBI. Macrofauna classification based on ecological groups was reviewed using the Indicator Value (IndVal) coefficient. The results indicate that the ecosystems exhibit some level of disturbance. Most sites are situated between slightly-moderately disturbed boundaries due to the higher proportion of Nematoda (assigned here as Ecological Group I) and of Oligochaeta and Tubificidae (both classified as Ecological Group V). The AMBI proved efficient in evaluating environmental status, although the applicability of this index requires adjustments regarding some species in ecological groups. The present study also highlights the merits of the IndVal method for examining the assignments of species/taxa to an ecological group and demonstrates the validity of this coefficient is an assessment tool. Moreover, the complementary use of different methods is recommended for the assessment of ecosystem quality.

Recovery of macrobenthos in defaunated tropical estuarine sediments.

In the estuarine environment, hypoxia and/or anoxia have become a major cause of benthic defaunation and are strongly associated with increased eutrophication. Mesoscale field experiments were carried out to examine the recolonization and recovery time of macrobenthos after defaunation. Azoic sediments were achieved by covering four areas with polyethylene sheeting. Temporal changes and depth distribution of macrobenthos within the defaunated sediments were compared with those in undisturbed natural sediments at the same site. Within 3 days, annelids appeared as the first immigrants. After 153 days, the process of recovery had not yet been completed in terms of species richness. Whereas diversity and evenness showed no significant differences between treatments during the entire experiment, multivariate analyses proved that differences between treatments were still significant 93 days after the start of the experiment.

Assessing the severity of disturbance for intertidal and subtidal macrobenthos: the phylum-level meta-analysis approach in tropical estuarine sites of northeastern Brazil.

The phylum-level meta-analysis approach was applied to assess the status of disturbance of intertidal and subtidal macrobenthos in two estuaries in northeastern Brazil that are subject to different sources of pollution. Previously published estuarine data were included in the body of knowledge considered in the meta-analysis, to improve the reliability of the assessment of the Brazilian samples. Further multivariate and distributional techniques were applied to discriminate differences between estuaries and assess the pollution status of each. Phylum-level multivariate comparisons based on community attributes succeeded in discriminating the estuaries, and species distributions against abundance separated the estuaries in terms of pollution status. The meta-analysis indicated an almost indistinguishable moderate pollution status for both systems. Addition of new comparative data to the meta-analysis did not improve its sensitivity. Although the meta-analysis yielded satisfactory results in detecting disturbance in tropical estuaries, the method is not very sensitive to differences in sources of pollution.

Longitudinal Study in 3,000 m Male Runners: Relationship between Performance and Selected Physiological Parameters.

The purpose of the present study was to analyze longitudinal changes in 3,000 m running performance and the relationship with selected physiological parameters. Eighteen well-trained male middle-distance runners were measured six times (x3 per year) throughout two consecutive competitive seasons. The following parameters were measured on each occasion: maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), running economy (RE), velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max), velocity at 4mmol L(-1) blood lactate concentration (V4), and performance velocity (km·h(-1)) in 3,000 m time trials. Values ranged from 19.59 to 20.16 km·h(-1), running performance; 197 to 207 mL·kg(-1)·km(-1). RE; 17.2 to 17.7 km·h(-1), V4; 67.1 to 72.5 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1), VO2max; and 19.8 to 20.2 km·h(-1), vVO2max. A hierarchical linear model was used to quantify longitudinal relationships between running performance and selected physiological variables. Running performance decreased significantly over time, between each time point the decrease in running velocity was 0.06 km·h(-1). The variables that significantly explained performance changes were V4 and vVO2max. Also, vVO2max and V4 were the measures most strongly correlated with performance and can be used to predict 3,000 m race velocity. The best prediction formula for 3,000 m running performance was: y = 0.646 + 0.626x + 0.416z (R(2)=0.85); where y = V3,000 m velocity (km·h(-1)), x = V4 (km·h(-1)) and z = vVO2max (km·h(-1)). The high predictive power of vVO2max and V4 suggest that both coaches and athletes should give attention to improving these two physiological variables, in order to improve running performance. Key pointsV4 and vVO2max are the most important physiological variables to explain longitudinal changes in 3000 m running performance;3000 m running performance prediction is better if one uses both V4 and vVO2max in the same formula: y = 0.646 + 0.626x + 0.416z; R(2)=0.85, where y is the Vrace (km/h), x is V4 (km/h) and z is vVO2max (km/h).The V4 and vVO2max can be used for training control purposes.

Ideal width of transects for monitoring source-related categories of plastics on beaches.

Although there is a consensus on the necessity of monitoring solid wastes pollution on beaches, the methods applied vary widely. Therefore, creating, testing and recommending a method that not only allows comparisons of places and periods, but also the detection of source signals, will be important to reach the objectives of the source-prevention principle. This will also allow the optimisation of time, resources, and processing of samples and data. A classification of the items found into specific categories was made according to their most probable source/use (fisheries, food packaging, hazardous, sewage/personal hygiene, beach user, general home). This study tested different widths of sampling transects to be used in the detection of plastics contamination on beaches, until all the categories were significantly represented. Each transect had its total width (50m) sub-divided into eight intervals of 0-2.5m; 2.5-5m; 5-10m; 10-15m; 15-20m; 20-30m; 30-40m; and 40-50m. The accumulated number of categories in the 50m (up to 2.5m; up to 5m and so on) was used to determine the minimal width necessary to qualitatively characterize the area regarding plastics contamination. The diversity of the categories was directly related to the area of the sampling transect. These results indicate that a significant increase in the number of categories in the first intervals tend to stabilize from 15-20m onwards.