Novel Fatty Acid Biomarkers in Psoriasis and the Role of Modifiable Factors: Results from the METHAP Clinical Study.

Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated skin condition with significant metabolic complications. Although lipid metabolism is linked to its pathogenesis, reliable biomarkers and the impact of modifiable factors remain underexplored. The aim of the present study was to identify potential biomarkers, study the affected metabolic networks, and assess the role of dietary and lifestyle factors in psoriasis. Plasma samples from 56 patients with psoriasis and 49 healthy controls were analyzed, as part of the Metabolic Biomarkers in Hashimoto's Thyroiditis and Psoriasis (METHAP) clinical trial. Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry 23 fatty acids and their ratios were quantified, revealing significant changes in psoriasis. Specifically, lower levels of α-linoleic acid (C18:3n3), linoleic acid (C18:2n6), and gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) were observed along with higher levels of eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3n3), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n3), and erucic acid (C22:1n9). Total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were significantly decreased, and the ratio of saturated to total fatty acids (SFA/Total) was increased in psoriasis (p-values < 0.0001). Linear regression identified α-linoleic acid, linoleic acid, eicosatrienoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid as potential biomarkers for psoriasis, adjusting for demographic, dietary, and lifestyle confounders. Network analysis revealed key contributors in the metabolic reprogramming of psoriasis. These findings highlight the association between psoriasis and fatty acid biomarkers of inflammation, insulin resistance and micronutrients deficiency, suggesting their potency in disease management.

A novel nutraceutical formulation increases telomere length and activates telomerase activity in middle­aged rats.

Telomeres are major contributors to cell fate and aging through their involvement in cell cycle arrest and senescence. The accelerated attrition of telomeres is associated with aging­related diseases, and agents able to maintain telomere length (TL) through telomerase activation may serve as potential treatment strategies. The aim of the present study was to assess the potency of a novel telomerase activator on TL and telomerase activity in vivo. The administration of a nutraceutical formulation containing Centella asiatica extract, vitamin C, zinc and vitamin D3 in 18­month­old rats for a period of 3 months reduced the telomere shortening rate at the lower supplement dose and increased mean the TL at the higher dose, compared to pre­treatment levels. TL was determined using the Q­FISH method in peripheral blood mononuclear cells collected from the tail vein of the rats and cultured with RPMI­1640 medium. In both cases, TLs were significantly longer compared to the untreated controls (P≤0.001). In addition, telomerase activity was increased in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of both treatment groups. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that the nutraceutical formulation can maintain or even increase TL and telomerase activity in middle­aged rats, indicating a potential role of this formula in the prevention and treatment of aging­related diseases.

Psoriasis immunometabolism: progress on metabolic biomarkers and targeted therapy.

Psoriasis is a common inflammatory disease that affects mainly the skin. However, the moderate to severe forms have been associated with several comorbidities, such as psoriatic arthritis, Crohn's disease, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Keratinocytes and T helper cells are the dominant cell types involved in psoriasis development via a complex crosstalk between epithelial cells, peripheral immune cells and immune cells residing in the skin. Immunometabolism has emerged as a potent mechanism elucidating the aetiopathogenesis of psoriasis, offering novel specific targets to diagnose and treat psoriasis early. The present article discusses the metabolic reprogramming of activated T cells, tissue-resident memory T cells and keratinocytes in psoriatic skin, presenting associated metabolic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In psoriatic phenotype, keratinocytes and activated T cells are glycolysis dependent and are characterized by disruptions in the TCA cycle, the amino acid metabolism and the fatty acid metabolism. Upregulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) results in hyperproliferation and cytokine secretion by immune cells and keratinocytes. Metabolic reprogramming through the inhibition of affected metabolic pathways and the dietary restoration of metabolic imbalances may thus present a potent therapeutic opportunity to achieve long-term management of psoriasis and improved quality of life with minimum adverse effects.

Impacts of dietary exposure to pesticides on faecal microbiome metabolism in adult twins.

BACKGROUND: Dietary habits have a profound influence on the metabolic activity of gut microorganisms and their influence on health. Concerns have been raised as to whether the consumption of foodstuffs contaminated with pesticides can contribute to the development of chronic disease by affecting the gut microbiome. We performed the first pesticide biomonitoring survey of the British population, and subsequently used the results to perform the first pesticide association study on gut microbiome composition and function from the TwinsUK registry. METHODS: Dietary exposure of 186 common insecticide, herbicide, or fungicide residues and the faecal microbiome in 65 twin pairs in the UK was investigated. We evaluated if dietary habits, geographic location, or the rural/urban environment, are associated with the excretion of pesticide residues. The composition and metabolic activity of faecal microbiota was evaluated using shotgun metagenomics and metabolomics respectively. We performed a targeted urine metabolomics analysis in order to evaluate whether pesticide urinary excretion was also associated with physiological changes. RESULTS: Pyrethroid and/or organophosphorus insecticide residues were found in all urine samples, while the herbicide glyphosate was found in 53% of individuals. Food frequency questionnaires showed that residues from organophosphates were higher with increased consumption of fruit and vegetables. A total of 34 associations between pesticide residue concentrations and faecal metabolite concentrations were detected. Glyphosate excretion was positively associated with an overall increased bacterial species richness, as well as to fatty acid metabolites and phosphate levels. The insecticide metabolite Br2CA, reflecting deltamethrin exposure, was positively associated with the phytoestrogens enterodiol and enterolactone, and negatively associated with some N-methyl amino acids. Urine metabolomics performed on a subset of samples did not reveal associations with the excretion of pesticide residues. CONCLUSIONS: The consumption of conventionally grown fruit and vegetables leads to higher ingestion of pesticides with unknown long-term health consequences. Our results highlight the need for future dietary intervention studies to understand effects of pesticide exposure on the gut microbiome and possible health consequences.

Reversal of brain aging by targeting telomerase: A nutraceutical approach.

Telomeres, the protective caps of chromosomes, shorten with age, as telomerase, the enzyme responsible for the compensation of telomere erosion, is inactive in the majority of cells. Telomere shortening and subsequent cell senescence lead to tissue aging and age­related diseases. Neurodegenerative disorders, characterized by the progressive loss of neurons among other hallmarks of aged tissue, and poor cognitive function, have been associated with a short telomere length. Thus, telomerase activity has emerged as a therapeutic target, with novel agents being under investigation. The present study aimed to examine the effects of a novel natural telomerase activator, 'Reverse™', containing Centella asiatica extract, vitamin C, zinc and vitamin D3 on the brains of 18­month­old rats. The administration of the 'Reverse™' supplement for 3 months restored telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) expression in the brains of rats, as revealed by ELISA and immunohistochemistry. In addition, the findings from PCR­ELISA demonstrated an enhanced telomerase activity in the cerebellum and cortex cells in the brains of rats treated with the 'Reverse™' supplement. The histopathological findings confirmed a structural reversibility effect close to the differentiation observed in the young control group of rats treated with two capsules/kg body weight of the 'Reverse™' supplement. On the whole, the findings of the present study provide a strong indication that an increased telomerase activity and TERT expression may be achieved not only in the postnatal or embryonic period, but also in the brains of middle­aged rats through nutraceutical supplementation. The use of the 'Reverse™' supplement may thus contribute to the potential alleviation of a number of central nervous system diseases.

The snapshot of metabolic health in evaluating micronutrient status, the risk of infection and clinical outcome of COVID-19.

COVID-19 has re-established the significance of analyzing the organism through a metabolic perspective to uncover the dynamic interconnections within the biological systems. The role of micronutrient status and metabolic health emerge as pivotal in COVID-19 pathogenesis and the immune system's response. Metabolic disruption, proceeding from modifiable factors, has been proposed as a significant risk factor accounting for infection susceptibility, disease severity and risk for post-COVID complications. Metabolomics, the comprehensive study and quantification of intermediates and products of metabolism, is a rapidly evolving field and a novel tool in biomarker discovery. In this article, we propose that leveraging insulin resistance biomarkers along with biomarkers of micronutrient deficiencies, will allow for a diagnostic window and provide functional therapeutic targets. Specifically, metabolomics can be applied as: a. At-home test to assess the risk of infection and propose nutritional support, b. A screening tool for high-risk COVID-19 patients to develop serious illness during hospital admission and prioritize medical support, c(i). A tool to match nutritional support with specific nutrient requirements for mildly ill patients to reduce the risk for hospitalization, and c(ii). for critically ill patients to reduce recovery time and risk of post-COVID complications, d. At-home test to monitor metabolic health and reduce post-COVID symptomatology. Metabolic rewiring offers potential virtues towards disease prevention, dissection of high-risk patients, taking actionable therapeutic measures, as well as shielding against post-COVID syndrome.

Application of Metabolomics in Pediatric Asthma: Prediction, Diagnosis and Personalized Treatment.

Asthma in children remains a significant public health challenge affecting 5-20% of children in Europe and is associated with increased morbidity and societal healthcare costs. The high variation in asthma incidence among countries may be attributed to differences in genetic susceptibility and environmental factors. This respiratory disorder is described as a heterogeneous syndrome of multiple clinical manifestations (phenotypes) with varying degrees of severity and airway hyper-responsiveness, which is based on patient symptoms, lung function and response to pharmacotherapy. However, an accurate diagnosis is often difficult due to diversities in clinical presentation. Therefore, identifying early diagnostic biomarkers and improving the monitoring of airway dysfunction and inflammatory through non-invasive methods are key goals in successful pediatric asthma management. Given that asthma is caused by the interaction between genes and environmental factors, an emerging approach, metabolomics-the systematic analysis of small molecules-can provide more insight into asthma pathophysiological mechanisms, enable the identification of early biomarkers and targeted personalized therapies, thus reducing disease burden and societal cost. The purpose of this review is to present evidence on the utility of metabolomics in pediatric asthma through the analysis of intermediate metabolites of biochemical pathways that involve carbohydrates, amino acids, lipids, organic acids and nucleotides and discuss their potential application in clinical practice. Also, current challenges on the integration of metabolomics in pediatric asthma management and needed next steps are critically discussed.

Metabolic profiling of organic and fatty acids in chronic and autoimmune diseases.

Metabolomics is a powerful tool of omics that permits the simultaneous identification of metabolic perturbations in several autoimmune and chronic diseases. Several parameters can affect a metabolic profile, from the population characteristics to the selection of the analytical method. In the current chapter, we summarize the main analytical methods and results of the metabolic profiling of fatty and organic acids performed in human metabolomic studies for asthma, COPD, psoriasis and Hashimoto's thyroiditis. We discuss the most significant metabolic alterations associated with these diseases, after comparison of either a single patient's group with healthy controls or several patient's subgroups of different disease severity and phenotype with healthy controls or of a patient's group before and after treatment. Finally, we present critical metabolic patterns that are associated with each disease and their potency for the unraveling of disease pathogenesis, prediction, diagnosis, patient stratification and treatment selection.

A Clinical Trial for the Identification of Metabolic Biomarkers in Hashimoto's Thyroiditis and in Psoriasis: Study Protocol.

Hashimoto's thyroiditis and psoriasis are inflammatory disorders that significantly impact patients' quality of life, stressing the need for novel biomarkers of early diagnosis. This randomized clinical trial (NCT04693936) aims to identify Hashimoto's thyroiditis' and psoriasis' metabolic biomarkers and to investigate the effect of environmental factors on the disease-related metabolic imprint and quality of life. Patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, patients with psoriasis, and healthy individuals aged 18-60 will be recruited, enrolled according to eligibility criteria (medical history, clinical thyroid markers and the PASI score) and randomized to two groups. The intervention group will receive a combination of nutraceuticals for 6 months as part of a Mediterranean diet, and the control group will follow their usual diet. Data will be collected at baseline and the end of the study, including metabolite levels, lifestyle and anthropometric measurements, adherence to the Mediterranean diet (through the Mediterranean Diet Score) and disease-specific quality of life (through the Thyroid Patient Report Outcome for Hashimoto's group, and the Dermatology Life Quality Index for the psoriasis group). This study will investigate metabolic biomarkers and related changes in Hashimoto's thyroiditis and psoriasis and evaluate the association of metabolic changes with dietary factors and quality of life.

Analysis of the intricate effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols on inflammatory pathways in health and disease.

Prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, arthritis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and various infectious diseases; lately most notably COVID-19 have been in the front line of research worldwide. Although targeting different organs, these pathologies have common biochemical impairments - redox disparity and, prominently, dysregulation of the inflammatory pathways. Research data have shown that diet components like polyphenols, poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), fibres as well as lifestyle (fasting, physical exercise) are important factors influencing signalling pathways with a significant potential to improve metabolic homeostasis and immune cells' functions. In the present manuscript we have reviewed scientific data from recent publications regarding the beneficial cellular and molecular effects induced by dietary plant products, mainly polyphenolic compounds and PUFAs, and summarize the clinical outcomes expected from these types of interventions, in a search for effective long-term approaches to improve the immune system response.

Telomerase and telomeres in aging theory and chronographic aging theory (Review).

The current review focuses on the connection of telomerase and telomeres with aging. In this review, we describe the changes in telomerase and telomere length (TEL) during development, their role in carcinogenesis processes, and the consequences of reduced telomerase activity. More specifically, the connection of TEL in peripheral blood cells with the development of aging­associated diseases is discussed. The review provides systematic data on the role of telomerase in mitochondria, the biology of telomeres in stem cells, as well as the consequences of the forced expression of telomerase (telomerization) in human cells. Additionally, it presents the effects of chronic stress exposure on telomerase activity, the effect of TEL on fertility, and the effect of nutraceutical supplements on TEL. Finally, a comparative review of the chronographic theory of aging, presented by Olovnikov is provided based on currently available scientific research on telomere, telomerase activity, and the nature of aging by multicellular organisms.

Chronic Inflammation in the Context of Everyday Life: Dietary Changes as Mitigating Factors.

The lifestyle adopted by most people in Western societies has an important impact on the propensity to metabolic disorders (e.g., diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases). This is often accompanied by chronic low-grade inflammation, driven by the activation of various molecular pathways such as STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3), IKK (IκB kinase), MMP9 (matrix metallopeptidase 9), MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinases), COX2 (cyclooxigenase 2), and NF-Kß (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells). Multiple intervention studies have demonstrated that lifestyle changes can lead to reduced inflammation and improved health. This can be linked to the concept of real-life risk simulation, since humans are continuously exposed to dietary factors in small doses and complex combinations (e.g., polyphenols, fibers, polyunsaturated fatty acids, etc.). Inflammation biomarkers improve in patients who consume a certain amount of fiber per day; some even losing weight. Fasting in combination with calorie restriction modulates molecular mechanisms such as m-TOR, FOXO, NRF2, AMPK, and sirtuins, ultimately leads to significantly reduced inflammatory marker levels, as well as improved metabolic markers. Moving toward healthier dietary habits at the individual level and in publicly-funded institutions, such as schools or hospitals, could help improving public health, reducing healthcare costs and improving community resilience to epidemics (such as COVID-19), which predominantly affects individuals with metabolic diseases.

Telomere length and telomerase activity in osteoporosis and osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA) and osteoporosis (OP) are associated skeletal pathologies and have as a distinct feature the abnormal reconstruction of the subchondral bone. OA and OP have been characterized as age-related diseases and have been associated with telomere shortening and altered telomerase activity (TA). This review discusses the role of telomeres and telomerase in OA and OP pathologies and focuses on the usability of telomere length (TL) and the rate of telomere shortening as potential disease biomarkers. A number of studies have demonstrated that telomere shortening may contribute to OA and OP as an epigenetic factor. Therefore, it has been claimed that the measurement of TL of chondrocytes and/or peripheral blood cells may be an appropriate marker for the evaluation of the progression of these diseases. However, there is a need to be perform further studies with larger cohorts, with the aim of obtaining objective results and a better understanding of the association between TL, inflammation and aging, in order to provide further insight into the pathophysiology of degenerative joint diseases.

Targeted Metabolomic Analysis of Serum Fatty Acids for the Prediction of Autoimmune Diseases.

Autoimmune diseases (ADs) are rapidly increasing worldwide and accumulating data support a key role of disrupted metabolism in ADs. This study aimed to identify an improved combination of Total Fatty Acids (TFAs) biomarkers as a predictive factor for the presence of autoimmune diseases. A retrospective nested case-control study was conducted in 403 individuals. In the case group, 240 patients diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, multiple sclerosis, vitiligo, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, and other AD were included and compared to 163 healthy individuals. Targeted metabolomic analysis of serum TFAs was performed using GC-MS, and 28 variables were used as input for the predictive models. The primary analysis identified 12 variables that were statistically significantly different between the two groups, and metabolite-metabolite correlation analysis revealed 653 significant correlation coefficients with 90% level of significance (p < 0.05). Three predictive models were developed, namely (a) a logistic regression based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA), (b) a straightforward logistic regression model and (c) an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model. PCA and straightforward logistic regression analysis, indicated reasonably well adequacy (74.7 and 78.9%, respectively). For the ANN, a model using two hidden layers and 11 variables was developed, resulting in 76.2% total predictive accuracy. The models identified important biomarkers: lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), stearic acid (C18:0), lignoceric acid (C24:0), palmitic acid (C16:0) and heptadecanoic acid (C17:0) among saturated fatty acids, Cis-10-pentadecanoic acid (C15:1), Cis-11-eicosenoic acid (C20:1n9), and erucic acid (C22:1n9) among monounsaturated fatty acids and the Gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) polyunsaturated fatty acid. The metabolic pathways of the candidate biomarkers are discussed in relation to ADs. The findings indicate that the metabolic profile of serum TFAs is associated with the presence of ADs and can be an adjunct tool for the early diagnosis of ADs.

Metabolic Fingerprint of Chronic Obstructive Lung Diseases: A New Diagnostic Perspective.

Chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD) is a group of airway diseases, previously known as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. The heterogeneity of COLD does not allow early diagnosis and leads to increased morbidity and mortality. The increasing number of COLD incidences stresses the need for precision medicine approaches that are specific to the patient. Metabolomics is an emerging technology that allows for the discrimination of metabolic changes in the cell as a result of environmental factors and specific genetic background. Thus, quantification of metabolites in human biofluids can provide insights into the metabolic state of the individual in real time and unravel the presence of, or predisposition to, a disease. In this article, the advantages of and potential barriers to putting metabolomics into clinical practice for COLD are discussed. Today, metabolomics is mostly lab-based, and research studies with novel COLD-specific biomarkers are continuously being published. Several obstacles in the research and the market field hamper the translation of these data into clinical practice. However, technological and computational advances will facilitate the clinical interpretation of data and provide healthcare professionals with the tools to prevent, diagnose, and treat COLD with precision in the coming decades.

Discovery of potent telomerase activators: Unfolding new therapeutic and anti-aging perspectives.

Telomere length, a marker of cellular aging, decreases with age and it has been associated with aging­related diseases. Environmental factors, including diet and lifestyle factors, affect the rate of telomere shortening which can be reversed by telomerase. Telomerase activation by natural molecules has been suggested to be an anti­aging modulator that can play a role in the treatment of aging­related diseases. This study aimed to investigate the effect of natural compounds on telomerase activity in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The tested compounds included Centella asiatica extract formulation (08AGTLF), Astragalus extract formulation (Nutrient 4), TA­65 (containing Astragalus membranaceus extract), oleanolic acid (OA), maslinic acid (MA), and 3 multi­nutrient formulas (Nutrients 1, 2 and 3) at various concentrations. The mean absorbance values of telomerase activity measured following treatment with some of the above­mentioned formulations were statistically significantly higher compared to those of the untreated cells. In particular, in order of importance with respect to telomerase activation from highest to lowest, 08AGTLF, OA, Nutrient 4, TA­65, MA, Nutrient 3 and Nutrient 2, triggered statistically significant increase in telomerase activity compared to the untreated cells. 08AGTLF reached the highest levels of telomerase activity reported to date, at least to our knowledge, increasing telomerase activity by 8.8 folds compared to untreated cells, while Nutrient 4 and OA were also potent activators (4.3­fold and 5.9­fold increase, respectively). On the whole, this study indicates that the synergistic effect of nutrients and natural compounds can activate telomerase and produce more potent formulations. Human clinical studies using these formulations are required to evaluate their mode of action. This would reveal the health benefits of telomerase activation through natural molecules and would shed new light onto the treatment of aging­related diseases.

Association of nutraceutical supplements with longer telomere length.

Telomeres are nucleotide tandem repeats located at the tip of eukaryotic chromosomes that maintain genomic integrity. The gradual shortening of telomeres leads to cellular senescence and apoptosis, a key mechanism of aging and age­related chronic diseases. Epigenetic factors, such as nutrition, exercise and tobacco can affect the rate at which telomeres shorten and can modify the risk of developing chronic diseases. In this study, we evaluated the effects of a combination of nutraceutical supplements (NS) on telomere length (TL) in healthy volunteers with no medical history of any disease. Participants (n=47) were selected from healthy outpatients visiting a private clinic and were divided into the experimental group (n=16), that received the NS and the control group (n=31). We estimated the length of single telomeres in metaphase spread leukocytes, isolated from peripheral blood, using quantitative­fluorescent in situ hybridization (Q­FISH) analysis. The length of the whole telomere genome was significantly increased (P<0.05) for the mean, 1st quartile and median measurements in the experimental group. Similar findings were observed for short TL (20th percentile) (P<0.05) for the median and 3rd quartile measurements in the NS group, compared to the control group. The beneficial effects of the supplements on the length of short telomeres remained significant (P<0.05) following adjustment for age and sex. Telomeres were moderately longer in female patients compared to the male patients. On the whole, the findings of this study suggest that the administration of NS may be linked to sustaining the TL.

Developing BIOTEL: A Semi-Automated Spreadsheet for Estimating Telomere Length and Biological Age.

Introduction: Telomere length (TL) is causally related to aging and several age-related diseases. Specifically, the abundance of short telomeres and the rate of telomere shortening are strong determinants of cell homeostasis. Thus, tools for analyzing and manipulating TL data can vastly improve research focused on aging. Aim: In this study, we developed a semi-automated worksheet, BIOTEL, to generate individual and group TL statistics and provide a crude estimation of biological age. Results: Data from the Telomere Length Database Project (TLDP) were implemented to the spreadsheet to produce TL statistics. 150 participants were included, and their age was from 21 to 82 years, and the sex distribution ratio was 52.3%: 47.7% (male: female). Initially, we analyzed the fluorescence intensities of telomeres that were measured on metaphase spread leukocytes using three-dimensional (3D) quantitative-fluorescent in situ hybridization (Q-FISH) procedures (3D DNA FISH) with a (C3TA2)3 peptide nucleic acid (PNA) probe. Raw data of fluorescence intensities, demographic data and medical records from the participants were imported into the worksheet. Basic statistical analyses of TL data were provided through BIOTEL, including TL percentiles, specialized charts for TL distribution including the percentage of critically short telomeres (< 3,000 kilobases), individual telomere profiles, and graphs of biological age vs. chronological age. Conclusion: BIOTEL ver. 2.4 is a functional semi-automated worksheet that calculates a wide range of TL statistics, thus a useful tool with applications in research of telomeres and biological age estimation.

Application of metabolomics part II: Focus on fatty acids and their metabolites in healthy adults.

Fatty acids (FAs) play critical roles in health and disease. The detection of FA imbalances through metabolomics can provide an overview of an individual's health status, particularly as regards chronic inflammatory disorders. In this study, we aimed to establish sensitive reference value ranges for targeted plasma FAs in a well­defined population of healthy adults. Plasma samples were collected from 159 participants admitted as outpatients. A total of 24 FAs were analyzed using gas chromatography­mass spectrometry, and physiological values and 95% reference intervals were calculated using an approximate method of analysis. The differences among the age groups for the relative levels of stearic acid (P=0.005), the omega­6/omega­3 ratio (P=0.027), the arachidonic acid/eicosapentaenoic acid ratio (P<0.001) and the linoleic acid­produced dihomo­gamma­linolenic acid (P=0.046) were statistically significant. The majority of relative FA levels were higher in males than in females. The levels of myristic acid (P=0.0170) and docosahexaenoic acid (P=0.033) were significantly different between the sexes. The reference values for the FAs examined in this study represent a baseline for further studies examining the reproducibility of this methodology and sensitivities for nutrient deficiency detection and investigating the biochemical background of pathological conditions. The application of these values to clinical practice will allow for the discrimination between health and disease and contribute to early prevention and treatment.