Lactate Dehydrogenase Inhibitors Suppress Borrelia burgdorferi Growth In Vitro.

Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, has a highly reduced genome and relies heavily on glycolysis for carbon metabolism. As such, established inhibitors of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were evaluated in cultures to determine the extent of their impacts on B. burgdorferi growth. Both racemic and enantiopure (AT-101) gossypol, as well as oxamate, galloflavin, and stiripentol, caused the dose-dependent suppression of B. burgdorferi growth in vitro. Racemic gossypol and AT-101 were shown to fully inhibit spirochetal growth at concentrations of 70.5 and 187.5 µM, respectively. Differences between racemic gossypol and AT-101 efficacy may indicate that the dextrorotatory enantiomer of gossypol is a more effective inhibitor of B. burgdorferi growth than the levorotatory enantiomer. As a whole, LDH inhibition appears to be a promising mechanism for suppressing Borrelia growth, particularly with bulky LDH inhibitors like gossypol.

Design and synthesis of C-aryl angular luotonins via a one-pot aza-Nazarov-Friedlander sequence and their Topo-I inhibition studies along with C-aryl vasicinones and luotonins.

A facile one-pot synthesis of C-ring substituted angular luotonins has been realized via a methanesulfonic acid mediated aza-Nazarov-Friedlander condensation sequence on quinazolinonyl enones. Topoisomerase I (topo-I) inhibition studies revealed that the angular luotonin library (7a-7l) and their regioisomeric analogs (linear luotonins, 8a-8l) are weak negative modulators, compared to camptothecin. These results would fare well for the design of topo-I-inert luotonins for non-oncological applications such as anti-fungal and insecticide lead developments. Surprisingly, the tricyclic vasicinones (9h, 9i, and 9j) showed better topo-I inhibition compared to pentacyclic C-aryl luotonins providing a novel pharmacophore for further explorations.

Identification of Protein Recognition Elements within Heparin Chains Using Enzymatic Foot-Printing in Solution and Online SEC/MS.

Understanding molecular mechanisms governing interactions of glycosaminoglycans (such as heparin) with proteins remains challenging due to their enormous structural heterogeneity. Commonly accepted approaches seek to reduce the structural complexity by searching for "binding epitopes" within the limited subsets of short heparin oligomers produced either enzymatically or synthetically. A top-down approach presented in this work seeks to preserve the chemical diversity displayed by heparin by allowing the longer and structurally diverse chains to interact with the client protein. Enzymatic lysis of the protein-bound heparin chains followed by the product analysis using size exclusion chromatography with online mass spectrometry detection (SEC/MS) reveals the oligomers that are protected from lysis due to their tight association with the protein, and enables their characterization (both the oligomer length, and the number of incorporated sulfate and acetyl groups). When applied to a paradigmatic heparin/antithrombin system, the new method generates a series of oligomers with surprisingly distinct sulfation levels. The extent of sulfation of the minimal-length binder (hexamer) is relatively modest yet persistent, consistent with the notion of six sulfate groups being both essential and sufficient for antithrombin binding. However, the masses of longer surviving chains indicate complete sulfation of disaccharides beyond the hexasaccharide core. Molecular dynamics simulations confirm the existence of favorable electrostatic interactions between the high charge-density saccharide residues flanking the "canonical" antithrombin-binding hexasaccharide and the positive patch on the surface of the overall negatively charged protein. Furthermore, electrostatics may rescue the heparin/protein interaction in the absence of the canonical binding element.

Ruthenium coordination preferences in imidazole-containing systems revealed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and molecular modeling: Possible cues for the surprising stability of the Ru (III)/tris (hydroxymethyl)-aminomethane/imidazole complexes.

Ruthenium is a platinoid that exhibits a range of unique chemical properties in solution, which are exploited in a variety of applications, including luminescent probes, anticancer therapies, and artificial photosynthesis. This paper focuses on a recently demonstrated ability of this metal in its +3 oxidation state to form highly stable complexes with tris (hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (H2 NC(CH2 OH)3 , Tris-base or T) and imidazole (Im) ligands, where a single RuIII cation is coordinated by two molecules of each T and Im. High-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI MS) is used to characterize RuIII complexes formed by placing a RuII complex [(NH3 )5 RuII Cl]Cl in a Tris buffer under aerobic conditions. The most abundant ionic species in ESI MS represent mononuclear complexes containing an oxidized form of the metal, ie, [Xn RuIII T2 - 2H]+ , where X could be an additional T (n = 1) or NH3 (n = 0-2). Di- and tri-metal complexes also give rise to a series of abundant ions, with the highest mass ion representing a metal complex with an empirical formula Ru3 C24 O21 N6 H66 (interpreted as cyclo(T2 RuO)3 , a cyclic oxo-bridged structure, where the coordination sphere of each metal is completed by two T ligands). The empirical formulae of the binuclear species are consistent with the structures representing acyclic fragments of cyclo(T2 RuO)3 with addition of various combinations of ammonia and dioxygen as ligands. Addition of histidine in large molar excess to this solution results in complete disassembly of poly-nuclear complexes and gives rise to a variety of ionic species in the ESI mass spectrum with a general formula [RuIII Hisk Tm (NH3 )n - 2H]+ , where k = 0 to 2, m = 0 to 3, and n = 0 to 4. Ammonia adducts are present for all observed combinations of k and m, except k = m = 2, suggesting that [His2 RuIII T2 - 2H]+ represents a complex with a fully completed coordination sphere. The observed cornucopia of RuIII complexes formed in the presence of histidine is in stark contrast to the previously reported selective reactivity of imidazole, which interacts with the metal by preserving the RuT2 core and giving rise to a single abundant ruthenium complex (represented by [Im2 RuIII T2 - 2H]+ in ESI mass spectra). Surprisingly, the behavior of a hexa-histidine peptide (HHHHHH) is similar to that of a single imidazole, rather than a single histidine amino acid: The RuT2 core is preserved, with the following ionic species observed in ESI mass spectra: [HHHHHH·(RuIII T2 )m - (3m-1)H]+ (m = 1-3). The remarkable selectivity of the imidazole interaction with the RuIII T2 core is rationalized using energetic considerations at the quantum mechanical level of theory.

Synthesis of C-Ring-Substituted Vasicinones and Luotonins via Regioselective Aza-Nazarov Cyclization of Quinazolinonyl Enones.

A facile synthesis of C-ring substituted luotonins and vasicinones has been realized via a super-acid-mediated aza-Nazarov cyclization of quinazolinonyl enones. The regioselectivity of the cyclization is highly dependent on proton availability in the reaction medium.

Mutations in TTC29, Encoding an Evolutionarily Conserved Axonemal Protein, Result in Asthenozoospermia and Male Infertility.

In humans, structural or functional defects of the sperm flagellum induce asthenozoospermia, which accounts for the main sperm defect encountered in infertile men. Herein we focused on morphological abnormalities of the sperm flagellum (MMAF), a phenotype also termed "short tails," which constitutes one of the most severe sperm morphological defects resulting in asthenozoospermia. In previous work based on whole-exome sequencing of a cohort of 167 MMAF-affected individuals, we identified bi-allelic loss-of-function mutations in more than 30% of the tested subjects. In this study, we further analyzed this cohort and identified five individuals with homozygous truncating variants in TTC29, a gene preferentially and highly expressed in the testis, and encoding a tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein related to the intraflagellar transport (IFT). One individual carried a frameshift variant, another one carried a homozygous stop-gain variant, and three carried the same splicing variant affecting a consensus donor site. The deleterious effect of this last variant was confirmed on the corresponding transcript and protein product. In addition, we produced and analyzed TTC29 loss-of-function models in the flagellated protist T. brucei and in M. musculus. Both models confirmed the importance of TTC29 for flagellar beating. We showed that in T. brucei the TPR structural motifs, highly conserved between the studied orthologs, are critical for TTC29 axonemal localization and flagellar beating. Overall our work demonstrates that TTC29 is a conserved axonemal protein required for flagellar structure and beating and that TTC29 mutations are a cause of male sterility due to MMAF.

Modulation of Amyloid-ß42 Conformation by Small Molecules Through Nonspecific Binding.

Aggregation of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides is a crucial step in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Identifying aggregation inhibitors against AD has been a great challenge. We report an atomistic simulation study of the inhibition mechanism of two small molecules, homotaurine and scyllo-inositol, which are AD drug candidates currently under investigation. We show that both small molecules promote a conformational change of the Aß42 monomer toward a more collapsed phase through a nonspecific binding mechanism. This finding provides atomistic-level insights into designing potential drug candidates for future AD treatments.

Drug Screening for Discovery of Broad-spectrum Agents for Soil-transmitted Nematodes.

Soil-transmitted nematodes (STNs), namely hookworms, whipworms, and ascarids, are extremely common parasites, infecting 1-2 billion of the poorest people worldwide. Two benzimidazoles, albendazole and mebendazole, are currently used in STN mass drug administration, with many instances of low/reduced activity reported. New drugs against STNs are urgently needed. We tested various models for STN drug screening with the aim of identifying the most effective tactics for the discovery of potent, safe and broad-spectrum agents. We screened a 1280-compound library of approved drugs to completion against late larval/adult stages and egg/larval stages of both the human hookworm parasite Ancylostoma ceylanicum and the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, which is often used as a surrogate for STNs in screens. The quality of positives was further evaluated based on cheminformatics/data mining analyses and activity against evolutionarily distant Trichuris muris whipworm adults. From these data, two pairs of positives, sulconazole/econazole and pararosaniline/cetylpyridinium, predicted to target nematode CYP-450 and HSP-90 respectively, were prioritized for in vivo evaluation against A. ceylanicum infections in hamsters. One of these positives, pararosaniline, showed a significant impact on hookworm fecundity in vivo. Taken together, our results suggest that anthelmintic screening with A. ceylanicum larval stages is superior to C. elegans based on both reduced false negative rate and superior overall quality of actives. Our results also highlight two potentially important targets for the discovery of broad-spectrum human STN drugs.

Chemoproteomics Using Nucleotide Acyl Phosphates Reveals an ATP Binding Site at the Dimer Interface of Procaspase-6.

Acyl phosphates of ATP (ATPAc) and related nucleotides have proven to be useful for the interrogation of known nucleotide binding sites via specific acylation of conserved lysines (K). In addition, occasional K acylations are identified in proteins without such known sites. Here we present a robust and specific acylation of procaspase-6 by ATPAc at K133 in Jurkat cell lysates. The K133 acylation is dependent on π-π stacking interactions between the adenine moiety of ATPAc and a conserved Y198-Y198 site formed at the homodimeric interface of procaspase-6. Significantly, the Y198A mutation in procaspase-6 abolishes K133 acylation but has no effect on the proteolytic activity of the mature, active caspase-6 Y198A variant. Additional in vitro studies show that ATP can inhibit the autoproteolytic activation of procaspase-6. These observations suggest that ATP, and possibly other nucleotides, may serve as the endogenous ligands for the allosteric site at the procaspase-6 dimer interface, a site that has persisted in its "orphan" status for more than a decade.

Facile synthesis of 3-substituted imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines through formimidamide chemistry.

A facile entry to 3-aryl/alkenyl/alkynyl substituted imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines (3a-p, 6a-d & 9a-9e) has been developed from readily available benzyl/allyl/propargyl halides and 2-amino pyridines as substrates via formimidamide chemistry that is devoid of caustic or expensive reagents, such as transition metal complexes. Quantum chemical calculations performed to understand the underlying mechanism of the transformation revealed a preference for intramolecular Mannich-type addition over pericyclic 1,5-electrocyclization for the systems reported herein that enable a Baldwin allowed 5-exo-trig cyclization instead of a formally anti-Baldwin 5-endo-trig process.

Mass Spectrometry Reveals a Multifaceted Role of Glycosaminoglycan Chains in Factor Xa Inactivation by Antithrombin.

Factor Xa (fXa) inhibition by antithrombin (AT) enabled by heparin or heparan sulfate is critical for controlling blood coagulation. AT activation by heparin has been investigated extensively, while interaction of heparin with trapped AT/fXa intermediates has received relatively little attention. We use native electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to study the role of heparin chains of varying length [hexa-, octa-, deca-, and eicosasaccharides (dp6, dp8, dp10, and dp20, respectively)] in AT/fXa complex assembly. Despite being critical promoters of AT/Xa binding, shorter heparin chains are excluded from the final products (trapped intermediates). However, replacement of short heparin segments with dp20 gives rise to a prominent ionic signal of ternary complexes. These species are also observed when the trapped intermediate is initially prepared in the presence of a short oligoheparin (dp6), followed by addition of a longer heparin chain (dp20), indicating that binding of heparin to AT/fXa complexes takes place after the inhibition event. The importance of the heparin chain length for its ability to associate with the trapped intermediate suggests that the binding likely occurs in a bidentate fashion (where two distinct segments of oligoheparin make contacts with the protein components, while the part of the chain separating these two segments is extended into solution to minimize electrostatic repulsion). This model is corroborated by both molecular dynamics simulations with an explicit solvent and ion mobility measurements in the gas phase. The observed post-inhibition binding of heparin to the trapped AT/fXa intermediates hints at the likely role played by heparan sulfate in their catabolism.

Rare human Caspase-6-R65W and Caspase-6-G66R variants identify a novel regulatory region of Caspase-6 activity.

The cysteine protease Caspase-6 (Casp6) is a potential therapeutic target of Alzheimer Disease (AD) and age-dependent cognitive impairment. To assess if Casp6 is essential to human health, we investigated the effect of CASP6 variants sequenced from healthy humans on Casp6 activity. Here, we report the effects of two rare Casp6 amino acid polymorphisms, R65W and G66R, on the catalytic function and structure of Casp6. The G66R substitution eliminated and R65W substitution significantly reduced Casp6 catalytic activity through impaired substrate binding. In contrast to wild-type Casp6, both Casp6 variants were unstable and inactive in transfected mammalian cells. In addition, Casp6-G66R acted as a dominant negative inhibitor of wild-type Casp6. The R65W and G66R substitutions caused perturbations in substrate recognition and active site organization as revealed by molecular dynamics simulations. Our results suggest that full Casp6 activity may not be essential for healthy humans and support the use of Casp6 inhibitors against Casp6-dependent neurodegeneration in age-dependent cognitive impairment and AD. Furthermore, this work illustrates that studying natural single amino acid polymorphisms of enzyme drug targets is a promising approach to uncover previously uncharacterized regulatory sites important for enzyme activity.

Homozygous missense mutation L673P in adenylate kinase 7 (AK7) leads to primary male infertility and multiple morphological anomalies of the flagella but not to primary ciliary dyskinesia.

Motile cilia and sperm flagella share an extremely conserved microtubule-based cytoskeleton, called the axoneme, which sustains beating and motility of both organelles. Ultra-structural and/or functional defects of this axoneme are well-known to cause primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), a disorder characterized by recurrent respiratory tract infections, chronic otitis media, situs inversus, male infertility and in most severe cases, hydrocephalus. Only recently, mutations in genes encoding axonemal proteins with preferential expression in the testis were identified in isolated male infertility; in those cases, individuals displayed severe asthenozoospermia due to Multiple Morphological Abnormalities of the sperm Flagella (MMAF) but not PCD features. In this study, we performed genetic investigation of two siblings presenting MMAF without any respiratory PCD features, and we report the identification of the c.2018T > G (p.Leu673Pro) transversion in AK7, encoding an adenylate kinase, expressed in ciliated tissues and testis. By performing transcript and protein analyses of biological samples from individual carrying the transversion, we demonstrate that this mutation leads to the loss of AK7 protein in sperm cells but not in respiratory ciliated cells, although both cell types carry the mutated transcript and no tissue-specific isoforms were detected. This work therefore, supports the notion that proteins shared by both cilia and sperm flagella may have specific properties and/or function in each organelle, in line with the differences in their mode of assembly and organization. Overall, this work identifies a novel genetic cause of asthenozoospermia due to MMAF and suggests that in humans, more deleterious mutations of AK7 might induce PCD.

Interaction of Cholesterol with Perfringolysin O: What Have We Learned from Functional Analysis?

Cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDCs) constitute a family of pore-forming toxins secreted by Gram-positive bacteria. These toxins form transmembrane pores by inserting a large ß-barrel into cholesterol-containing membranes. Cholesterol is absolutely required for pore-formation. For most CDCs, binding to cholesterol triggers conformational changes that lead to oligomerization and end in pore-formation. Perfringolysin O (PFO), secreted by Clostridium perfringens, is the prototype for the CDCs. The molecular mechanisms by which cholesterol regulates the cytolytic activity of the CDCs are not fully understood. In particular, the location of the binding site for cholesterol has remained elusive. We have summarized here the current body of knowledge on the CDCs-cholesterol interaction, with focus on PFO. We have employed sterols in aqueous solution to identify structural elements in the cholesterol molecule that are critical for its interaction with PFO. In the absence of high-resolution structural information, site-directed mutagenesis data combined with binding studies performed with different sterols, and molecular modeling are beginning to shed light on this interaction.

Caspase-6 Undergoes a Distinct Helix-Strand Interconversion upon Substrate Binding.

Caspases are cysteine aspartate proteases that are major players in key cellular processes, including apoptosis and inflammation. Specifically, caspase-6 has also been implicated in playing a unique and critical role in neurodegeneration; however, structural similarities between caspase-6 and other caspase active sites have hampered precise targeting of caspase-6. All caspases can exist in a canonical conformation, in which the substrate binds atop a ß-strand platform in the 130's region. This caspase-6 region can also adopt a helical conformation that has not been seen in any other caspases. Understanding the dynamics and interconversion between the helical and strand conformations in caspase-6 is critical to fully assess its unique function and regulation. Here, hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry indicated that caspase-6 is inherently and dramatically more conformationally dynamic than closely related caspase-7. In contrast to caspase-7, which rests constitutively in the strand conformation before and after substrate binding, the hydrogen/deuterium exchange data in the L2' and 130's regions suggested that before substrate binding, caspase-6 exists in a dynamic equilibrium between the helix and strand conformations. Caspase-6 transitions exclusively to the canonical strand conformation only upon substrate binding. Glu-135, which showed noticeably different calculated pK a values in the helix and strand conformations, appears to play a key role in the interconversion between the helix and strand conformations. Because caspase-6 has roles in several neurodegenerative diseases, exploiting the unique structural features and conformational changes identified here may provide new avenues for regulating specific caspase-6 functions for therapeutic purposes.

Interactions of Haptoglobin with Monomeric Globin Species: Insights from Molecular Modeling and Native Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.

Haptoglobin (Hp) binds free hemoglobin (Hb) dimers to prevent negative consequences of Hb circulation in the extracellular environment. Although both monomeric Hb and myoglobin (Mb) species also present potential risks, their interactions with Hp have not been extensively studied. Mb is homologous to both the α- and ß-chains of Hb and shares many conserved Hb/Hp interface residues, yet whether Hp binds Mb remains unclear. To address this, computational biology tools were used to predict the interactions required for Hp to bind monomeric globins, and the predicted association was tested using native electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The Hb/Hp crystal structure was used as the template to create molecular models of two Mb molecules bound to an Hp heterodimer (Mb2/Hp). Molecular modeling suggests that Mb can bind at the Hp α-chain binding site, where 73% of the globin/Hp interactions are conserved. By contrast, several ionic ß-chain residues involved in complementary electrostatic interactions with Hp correspond to residues with the opposite charge in Mb, suggesting unfavorable electrostatic Hp/Mb interactions at the ß-chain binding site. As shown by native ESI-MS, isolated monomeric Hbα subunits can form 2:1 complexes with Hp heterotetramers in the absence of Hb ß-chains. Native ESI-MS also confirmed that Mb can bind to Hp heterotetramers in solution with stoichiometries of 1:1 and 2:1 at physiological pH and ionic strength. The affinity of Hp for Mb appears to be diminished relative to that of Hb α-chains. Our in silico experiments rationalize this change and demonstrate that molecular modeling of protein/protein interactions is a valuable aid for MS experiments.

Homozygous mutation of PLCZ1 leads to defective human oocyte activation and infertility that is not rescued by the WW-binding protein PAWP.

In mammals, sperm-oocyte fusion initiates Ca(2+) oscillations leading to a series of events called oocyte activation, which is the first stage of embryo development. Ca(2+) signaling is elicited by the delivery of an oocyte-activating factor by the sperm. A sperm-specific phospholipase C (PLCZ1) has emerged as the likely candidate to induce oocyte activation. Recently, PAWP, a sperm-born tryptophan domain-binding protein coded by WBP2NL, was proposed to serve the same purpose. Here, we studied two infertile brothers exhibiting normal sperm morphology but complete fertilization failure after intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Whole exomic sequencing evidenced a missense homozygous mutation in PLCZ1, c.1465A>T; p.Ile489Phe, converting Ile 489 into Phe. We showed the mutation is deleterious, leading to the absence of the protein in sperm, mislocalization of the protein when injected in mouse GV and MII oocytes, highly abnormal Ca(2+) transients and early embryonic arrest. Altogether these alterations are consistent with our patients' sperm inability to induce oocyte activation and initiate embryo development. In contrast, no deleterious variants were identified in WBP2NL and PAWP presented normal expression and localization. Overall we demonstrate in humans, the absence of PLCZ1 alone is sufficient to prevent oocyte activation irrespective of the presence of PAWP. Additionally, it is the first mutation located in the C2 domain of PLCZ1, a domain involved in targeting proteins to cell membranes. This opens the door to structure-function studies to identify the conserved amino acids of the C2 domain that regulate the targeting of PLCZ1 and its selectivity for its lipid substrate(s).

X-ray Structural and Functional Studies of the Three Tandemly Linked Domains of Non-structural Protein 3 (nsp3) from Murine Hepatitis Virus Reveal Conserved Functions.

Murine hepatitis virus (MHV) has long served as a model system for the study of coronaviruses. Non-structural protein 3 (nsp3) is the largest nsp in the coronavirus genome, and it contains multiple functional domains that are required for coronavirus replication. Despite the numerous functional studies on MHV and its nsp3 domain, the structure of only one domain in nsp3, the small ubiquitin-like domain 1 (Ubl1), has been determined. We report here the x-ray structure of three tandemly linked domains of MHV nsp3, including the papain-like protease 2 (PLP2) catalytic domain, the ubiquitin-like domain 2 (Ubl2), and a third domain that we call the DPUP (domain preceding Ubl2 and PLP2) domain. DPUP has close structural similarity to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus unique domain C (SUD-C), suggesting that this domain may not be unique to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. The PLP2 catalytic domain was found to have both deubiquitinating and deISGylating isopeptidase activities in addition to proteolytic activity. A computationally derived model of MHV PLP2 bound to ubiquitin was generated, and the potential interactions between ubiquitin and PLP2 were probed by site-directed mutagenesis. These studies extend substantially our structural knowledge of MHV nsp3, providing a platform for further investigation of the role of nsp3 domains in MHV viral replication.

Evaluation of AaDOP2 receptor antagonists reveals antidepressants and antipsychotics as novel lead molecules for control of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti.

The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, vectors disease-causing agents that adversely affect human health, most notably the viruses causing dengue and yellow fever. The efficacy of current mosquito control programs is challenged by the emergence of insecticide-resistant mosquito populations, suggesting an urgent need for the development of chemical insecticides with new mechanisms of action. One recently identified potential insecticide target is the A. aegypti D1-like dopamine receptor, AaDOP2. The focus of the present study was to evaluate AaDOP2 antagonism both in vitro and in vivo using assay technologies with increased throughput. The in vitro assays revealed AaDOP2 antagonism by four distinct chemical scaffolds from tricyclic antidepressant or antipsychotic chemical classes, and elucidated several structure-activity relationship trends that contributed to enhanced antagonist potency, including lipophilicity, halide substitution on the tricyclic core, and conformational rigidity. Six compounds displayed previously unparalleled potency for in vitro AaDOP2 antagonism, and among these, asenapine, methiothepin, and cis-(Z)-flupenthixol displayed subnanomolar IC50 values and caused rapid toxicity to A. aegypti larvae and/or adults in vivo. Our study revealed a significant correlation between in vitro potency for AaDOP2 antagonism and in vivo toxicity, suggesting viability of AaDOP2 as an insecticidal target. Taken together, this study expanded the repertoire of known AaDOP2 antagonists, enhanced our understanding of AaDOP2 pharmacology, provided further support for rational targeting of AaDOP2, and demonstrated the utility of efficiency-enhancing in vitro and in vivo assay technologies within our genome-to-lead pipeline for the discovery of next-generation insecticides.