Chitosan-Coated Fosetyl-Al Nanocrystals efficacy on Nicotiana tabacum colonized by Xylella fastidiosa.

Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) is a quarantine plant pathogen capable of colonizing the xylem of a wide range of hosts. Currently, there is no cure able to eliminate the pathogen from a diseased plant, whereas several integrated strategies have been implemented for containing the spread of Xf. Nanotechnology represents an innovative strategy based on the possibility of maximizing the potential antibacterial activity by increasing the surface-to-volume ratio of nanoscale formulations. Nanoparticles based on Chitosan and/or Fosetyl-Al have shown different in vitro antibacterial efficacy against Xf subspecies fastidiosa (Xff) and pauca (Xfp). This work demonstrated the uptake of Chitosan-Coated Fosetyl-Al nanocrystals (CH-nanoFos) by roots and their localization in the stems and leaves of olea europaea plants. Additionally, the antibacterial activity of Fosetyl-Al, nano-Fosetyl, nano-chitosan, and Chitosan-Coated Fosetyl-Al nanocrystals (CH-nanoFos) was tested on Nicotiana tabacum cv. SR1 (Petite Havana) inoculated with Xff, Xfp, or Xf subsp. multiplex (Xfm). The bacterial load was evaluated with qPCR, and the results showed that CH-nanoFos was the only treatment able of reducing the colonization of Xff, Xfm, and Xfp in tobacco plants. Additionally, the Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC), used to assess symptoms development in tobacco plants inoculated with Xff, Xfm, and Xfp and treated with CH-nanoFos, showed a reduction in symptom development. Furthermore, the twitching assay and bacterial growth under microfluidic conditions confirmed the antibacterial activity of CH-nanoFos.

Analysis of Italian isolates of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii and development of a real-time PCR-based diagnostic method.

Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii (Pss) causes Stewart's vascular wilt of maize, and it is responsible for serious crop losses. Pss is indigenous to North America and spreads with maize seeds. The presence of Pss has been notified in Italy since 2015. The risk assessment of the entry of Pss in the EU from the United States through seed trade is in the order of magnitude of hundred introductions per year. Several molecular or serological tests were developed for the detection of Pss and used as official analysis for the certification of commercial seeds. However, some of these tests lack adequate specificity, not allowing to correctly discriminate Pss from P. stewartii subsp. indologenes (Psi). Psi is occasionally present in maize seeds and is avirulent for maize. In this study, several Italian isolates of Pss recovered in 2015 and 2018 have been characterized by molecular, biochemical, and pathogenicity tests; moreover, their genomes have been assembled through MinION and Illumina-sequencing procedures. Genomic analysis reveals multiple introgression events. Exploiting these results, a new primer combination has been defined and verified by real-time PCR, allowing the development of a specific molecular test able to detect the presence of Pss down to the concentration of 103 CFU/ml in spiked samples of maize seed extracts. Due to the high analytical sensitivity and specificity achieved with this test, the detection of Pss has been improved disentangling the inconclusive results in Pss maize seed diagnosis, overcoming its misidentification in place of Psi. Altogether, this test addresses the critical issue associated with maize seeds imported from regions where Stewart's disease is endemic.

Fungal and bacterial oxylipins are signals for intra- and inter-cellular communication within plant disease.

Lipids are central at various stages of host-pathogen interactions in determining virulence and modulating plant defense. Free fatty acids may act as substrates for oxidizing enzymes [e.g., lipoxygenases (LOXs) and dioxygenases (DOXs)] that synthesize oxylipins. Fatty acids and oxylipins function as modulators of several pathways in cell-to-cell communication; their structural similarity among plant, fungal, and bacterial taxa suggests potential in cross-kingdom communication. We provide a prospect of the known role of fatty acids and oxylipins in fungi and bacteria during plant-pathogen interactions. In the pathogens, oxylipin-mediated signaling pathways are crucial both in development and host infection. Here, we report on case studies suggesting that oxylipins derived from oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids are crucial in modulating the pathogenic lifestyle in the host plant. Intriguingly, overlapping (fungi-plant/bacteria-plant) results suggest that different inter-kingdom pathosystems use similar lipid signals to reshape the lifestyle of the contenders and occasionally determine the outcome of the challenge.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Targeted Lipidomics and Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms in Detecting Disease, Cultivar, and Treatment Biomarkers in Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca-Infected Olive Trees.

In 2013, Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) was detected for the first time in Apulia and, subsequently, recognized as the causal agent of the olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS). To contain the disease, the olive germplasm was evaluated for resistance to Xf, identifying cultivars with different susceptibility to the pathogen. Regarding this, the resistant cultivar Leccino has generally a lower bacterial titer compared with the susceptible cultivar Ogliarola salentina. Among biomolecules, lipids could have a pivotal role in the interaction of Xf with its host. In the grapevine Pierce's disease, fatty acid molecules, the diffusible signaling factors (DSFs), act as regulators of Xf lifestyle and are crucial for its virulence. Other lipid compounds derived from fatty acid oxidation, namely, oxylipins, can affect, in vitro, biofilm formation in Xf subsp. pauca (Xfp) strain De Donno, that is, the strain causing OQDS. In this study, we combined high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-MS-based targeted lipidomics with supervised learning algorithms (random forest, support vector machine, and neural networks) to classify olive tree samples from Salento. The dataset included samples from either OQDS-positive or OQDS-negative olive trees belonging either to cultivar Ogliarola salentina or Leccino treated or not with the zinc-copper-citric acid biocomplex Dentamet®. We built classifiers using the relative differences in lipid species able to discriminate olive tree samples, namely, (1) infected and non-infected, (2) belonging to different cultivars, and (3) treated or untreated with Dentamet®. Lipid entities emerging as predictors of the thesis are free fatty acids (C16:1, C18:1, C18:2, C18:3); the LOX-derived oxylipins 9- and 13-HPOD/TrE; the DOX-derived oxylipin 10-HPOME; and diacylglyceride DAG36:4(18:1/18:3).

Intra-Laboratory Evaluation of DNA Extraction Methods and Assessment of a Droplet Digital PCR for the Detection of Xanthomonas citri pv. citri on Different Citrus Species

Xanthomonas citri pv. citri (Xcc) and X. citri pv. aurantifolii (Xca), causal agents of citrus bacterial canker, are both regulated by the European Union to prevent their introduction. Xcc is responsible for severe outbreaks of citrus production worldwide, therefore, a prompt and reliable detection is advisable for the early detection of this bacterium either in symptomatic or asymptomatic plant material. The current EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) diagnostic protocol, PM 7/44(1), includes several diagnostic tests even if new assays have been developed in the latter years for which validation data are needed. Recently, a test performance study was organized within the Valitest EU Project to validate Xcc diagnostic methods and provide evidence on the most reliable assays; however, the influence of DNA extraction methods (DEM) on the reliability of the detection has never been assessed. In this study we evaluate four different DEM, by following two different approaches: (i) a comparison by real-time PCR standard curves of bacterial DNA versus bacterial DNA added to plant DNA (lemon, leaves and fruit; orange fruit); and (ii) the evaluation of performance criteria of spiked samples (plant extract added with ten-fold diluted bacterial suspensions at known concentrations). Droplet digital PCR is developed and compared with real-time PCR, as the detection method.

Progress towards Sustainable Control of Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca in Olive Groves of Salento (Apulia, Italy).

Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca is the causal agent of "olive quick decline syndrome" in Salento (Apulia, Italy). On April 2015, we started interdisciplinary studies to provide a sustainable control strategy for this pathogen that threatens the multi-millennial olive agroecosystem of Salento. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescence quantification showed that a zinc-copper-citric acid biocomplex-Dentamet®-reached the olive xylem tissue either after the spraying of the canopy or injection into the trunk, demonstrating its effective systemicity. The biocomplex showed in vitro bactericidal activity towards all X. fastidiosa subspecies. A mid-term evaluation of the control strategy performed in some olive groves of Salento indicated that this biocomplex significantly reduced both the symptoms and X. f. subsp. pauca cell concentration within the leaves of the local cultivars Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò. The treated trees started again to yield. A 1H-NMR metabolomic approach revealed, upon the treatments, a consistent increase in malic acid and γ-aminobutyrate for Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò trees, respectively. A novel endotherapy technique allowed injection of Dentamet® at low pressure directly into the vascular system of the tree and is currently under study for the promotion of resprouting in severely attacked trees. There are currently more than 700 ha of olive groves in Salento where this strategy is being applied to control X. f. subsp. pauca. These results collectively demonstrate an efficient, simple, low-cost, and environmentally sustainable strategy to control this pathogen in Salento.

The Effect of Fusarium verticillioides Fumonisins on Fatty Acids, Sphingolipids, and Oxylipins in Maize Germlings.

Fusarium verticillioides causes multiple diseases of Zea mays (maize) including ear and seedling rots, contaminates seeds and seed products worldwide with toxic chemicals called fumonisins. The role of fumonisins in disease is unclear because, although they are not required for ear rot, they are required for seedling diseases. Disease symptoms may be due to the ability of fumonisins to inhibit ceramide synthase activity, the expected cause of lipids (fatty acids, oxylipins, and sphingolipids) alteration in infected plants. In this study, we explored the impact of fumonisins on fatty acid, oxylipin, and sphingolipid levels in planta and how these changes affect F. verticillioides growth in maize. The identity and levels of principal fatty acids, oxylipins, and over 50 sphingolipids were evaluated by chromatography followed by mass spectrometry in maize infected with an F. verticillioides fumonisin-producing wild-type strain and a fumonisin-deficient mutant, after different periods of growth. Plant hormones associated with defense responses, i.e., salicylic and jasmonic acid, were also evaluated. We suggest that fumonisins produced by F. verticillioides alter maize lipid metabolism, which help switch fungal growth from a relatively harmless endophyte to a destructive necrotroph.

Further In Vitro Assessment and Mid-Term Evaluation of Control Strategy of Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca in Olive Groves of Salento (Apulia, Italy).

During recent years; Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca (Xfp) has spread in Salento causing relevant damage to the olive groves. Measures to contain the spreading of the pathogen include the monitoring of the areas bordering the so-called "infected" zone and the tree eradication in case of positive detection. In order to provide a control strategy aimed to maintain the tree productivity in the infected areas, we further evaluated the in vitro and in planta mid-term effectiveness of a zinc-copper-citric acid biocomplex. The compound showed an in vitro bactericidal activity and inhibited the biofilm formation in representative strains of X. fastidiosa subspecies, including Xfp isolated in Apulia from olive trees. The field mid-term evaluation of the control strategy assessed by quantitative real-time PCR in 41 trees of two olive groves of the "infected" area revealed a low concentration of Xfp over the seasons upon the regular spraying of the biocomplex over 3 or 4 consecutive years. In particular, the bacterial concentration lowered in July and October with respect to March, after six consecutive treatments. The trend was not affected by the cultivar and it was similar either in the Xfp-sensitive cultivars Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò or in the Xfp-resistant Leccino. Moreover, the scoring of the number of wilted twigs over the seasons confirmed the trend. The efficacy of the treatment in the management of olive groves subjected to a high pathogen pressure is highlighted by the yielded a good oil production.

Aspergillus flavus Exploits Maize Kernels Using an "Orphan" Secondary Metabolite Cluster.

Aspergillus flavus is a saprophytic cosmopolitan fungus, capable of infecting crops both pre- and post-harvest and exploiting different secondary metabolites, including aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are known carcinogens to animals and humans, but display no clear effect in host plants such as maize. In a previous study, we mined the genome of A. flavus to identify secondary metabolite clusters putatively involving the pathogenesis process in maize. We now focus on cluster 32, encoding for fungal effectors such as salicylate hydroxylase (SalOH), and necrosis- and ethylene-inducing proteins (npp1 domain protein) whose expression is triggered upon kernel contact. In order to understand the role of this genetic cluster in maize kernel infection, mutants of A. flavus, impaired or enhanced in specific functions (e.g., cluster 32 overexpression), were studied for their ability to cause disease. Within this frame, we conducted histological and histochemical experiments to verify the expression of specific genes within the cluster (e.g., SalOH, npp1), the production of salicylate, and the presence of its dehydroxylated form. Results suggest that the initial phase of fungal infection (2 days) of the living tissues of maize kernels (e.g., aleuron) coincides with a significant increase of fungal effectors such as SalOH and Npp1 that appear to be instrumental in eluding host defences and colonising the starch-enriched tissues, and therefore suggest a role of cluster 32 to the onset of infection.

Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oils and Trametes versicolor Extract against Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis and Ralstonia solanacearum for Seed Treatment and Development of a Rapid In Vivo Assay.

Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis (Smith) Davis et al. (Cmm) and Ralstonia solanacearum Yabuuchi et al. (Smith) (Rs) are important seed-borne bacterial pathogens of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) listed as A2 pests in the EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) region. At present, there are few strategies to control these pathogens, and seed control with eco-compatible approaches is widely encouraged. In this work, the essential oils (EOs) of oregano (Origanum vulgare), garlic (Allium sativum), basil (Ocimum basilicum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), clove buds (Syzygium aromaticum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), and Trametes versicolor extract (Tve) were tested in vitro for their antimicrobial activity against Cmm and Rs (broth microdilution method). The tested EOs and the Tve extract caused a significant inhibition of bacterial growth, with very promising MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) and MIC90 (minimum inhibitory concentration causing a 90% growth inhibition) values. Moreover, an in vivo germination test showed no major reduction in seed germination when the substances were applied as seed treatment. A rapid molecular screening method has been developed, through real-time PCR, for the specific quantification of Cmm in the presence of a vegetable matrix to test in vivo the antimicrobial efficacy of oregano and cinnamon oil on seed treatment without resorting to whole plant essays, which are time- and space-consuming.

Sonication-Assisted Production of Fosetyl-Al Nanocrystals: Investigation of Human Toxicity and In Vitro Antibacterial Efficacy against Xylella Fastidiosa.

Recently, there is a growing demand in sustainable phytopathogens control research. Nanotechnology provides several tools such as new pesticides formulations, antibacterial nanomaterials and smart delivery systems. Metal nano-oxides and different biopolymers have been exploited in order to develop nanopesticides which can offer a targeted solution minimizing side effects on environment and human health. This work proposed a nanotechnological approach to obtain a new formulation of systemic fungicide fosetyl-Al employing ultrasonication assisted production of water dispersible nanocrystals. Moreover, chitosan was applicated as a coating agent aiming a synergistic antimicrobial effect between biopolymer and fungicide. Fosetyl-Al nanocrystals have been characterized by morphological and physical-chemical analysis. Nanotoxicological investigation was carried out on human keratinocytes cells through cells viability test and ultrastructural analysis. In vitro planktonic growth, biofilm production and agar dilution assays have been conducted on two Xylella fastidiosa subspecies. Fosetyl-Al nanocrystals resulted very stable over time and less toxic respect to conventional formulation. Finally, chitosan-based fosetyl-Al nanocrystals showed an interesting antibacterial activity against Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca and Xylella fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa.

Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca and olive produced lipids moderate the switch adhesive versus non-adhesive state and viceversa.

Global trade and climate change are re-shaping the distribution map of pandemic pathogens. One major emerging concern is Xylella fastidiosa, a tropical bacterium recently introduced into Europe from America. In last decades, X. fastidiosa was detected in several European countries. X. fastidiosa is an insect vector-transmitted bacterial plant pathogen associated with severe diseases in a wide range of hosts. X. fastidiosa through a tight coordination of the adherent biofilm and the planktonic states, invades the host systemically. The planktonic phase is correlated to low cell density and vessel colonization. Increase in cell density triggers a quorum sensing system based on mixture of cis 2-enoic fatty acids-diffusible signalling factors (DSF) that promote stickiness and biofilm. The lipidome profile of Olea europaea L. (cv. Ogliarola salentina) samples, collected in groves located in infected zones and uninfected zones was performed. The untargeted analysis of the lipid profiles of Olive Quick Decline Syndrome (OQDS) positive (+) and negative (-) plants showed a clustering of OQDS+ plants apart from OQDS-. The targeted lipids profile of plants OQDS+ and OQDS- identified a shortlist of 10 lipids that increase their amount in OQDS+ and X. fastidiosa positive olive trees. These lipid entities, provided to X. fastidiosa subsp. pauca pure culture, impact on the dual phase, e.g. planktonic ↔ biofilm. This study provides novel insights on OQDS lipid hallmarks and on molecules that might modulate biofilm phase in X. fastidiosa subsp. pauca.

Tramesan Elicits Durum Wheat Defense against the Septoria Disease Complex.

The Septoria Leaf Blotch Complex (SLBC), caused by the two ascomycetes Zymoseptoria tritici and Parastagonospora nodorum, can reduce wheat global yearly yield by up to 50%. In the last decade, SLBC incidence has increased in Italy; notably, durum wheat has proven to be more susceptible than common wheat. Field fungicide treatment can efficiently control these pathogens, but it leads to the emergence of resistant strains and adversely affects human and animal health and the environment. Our previous studies indicated that active compounds produced by Trametes versicolor can restrict the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and the biosynthesis of their secondary metabolites (e.g., mycotoxins). Specifically, we identified Tramesan: a 23 kDa α-heteropolysaccharide secreted by T. versicolor that acts as a pro-antioxidant molecule in animal cells, fungi, and plants. Foliar-spray of Tramesan (3.3 µM) on SLBC-susceptible durum wheat cultivars, before inoculation of causal agents of Stagonospora Nodorum Blotch (SNB) and Septoria Tritici Blotch (STB), significantly decreased disease incidence both in controlled conditions (SNB: -99%, STB: -75%) and field assays (SNB: -25%, STB: -30%). We conducted these tests were conducted under controlled conditions as well as in field. We showed that Tramesan increased the levels of jasmonic acid (JA), a plant defense-related hormone. Tramesan also increased the early expression (24 hours after inoculation - hai) of plant defense genes such as PR4 for SNB infected plants, and RBOH, PR1, and PR9 for STB infected plants. These results suggest that Tramesan protects wheat by eliciting plant defenses, since it has no direct fungicidal activity. In field experiments, the yield of durum wheat plants treated with Tramesan was similar to that of healthy untreated plots. These results encourage the use of Tramesan to protect durum wheat against SLBC.

Fungal lipids: biosynthesis and signalling during plant-pathogen interaction.

Lipids occur in fungi as major constituents of the membrane systems and minor component in the cell wall; they can store energy in the lipid bodies and, in some cases, they can act as intra-extracellular signals. Fungi contain a various set of lipids, including fatty acids, oxylipins, sphingolipids, phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. Current studies in lipids suggest their additional role in cell signalling; for instance, host-pathogen exchange lipid signals at the interface during their interaction. This review aims examining those fungal lipid classes involved in the pathogenic interaction with the host plants. The lipid signals may trigger host immune response as well as functioning as virulence factors altering the lipid homeostasis of the host cells.

Lipid Profile of Xylella fastidiosa Subsp. pauca Associated With the Olive Quick Decline Syndrome.

Lipids, components of the plasma and intracellular membranes as well as of droplets, provide different biological functions related to energy, carbon storage, and stress responses. Bacterial species display diverse membrane composition that changes in response to the different environmental conditions. During plant-pathogen interactions, lipids might have roles in several aspects such as recognition, signal transduction, and downstream responses. Among lipid entities, free fatty acids (FFAs) and their oxidized form, the oxylipins, represent an important class of signaling molecules in host-pathogen perception, especially related to virulence and defense. In bacteria, FFAs (e.g., diffusible signaling factors) and oxylipins have a crucial role in modulating motility, biofilm formation, and virulence. In this study, we explore by LC-TOF and LC-MS/MS the lipid composition of Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca strain De Donno in pure culture; some specific lipids (e.g., ornithine lipids and the oxylipin 7,10-diHOME), characteristic of other pathogenic bacteria, were revealed. Nicotiana tabacum was used for testing the ability of this pathogen in producing such lipids in the host. Different lipid compounds present a clear distribution pattern within the infected plant tissues compared to the uninfected ones.

Oxylipins from both pathogen and host antagonize jasmonic acid-mediated defence via the 9-lipoxygenase pathway in Fusarium verticillioides infection of maize.

Oxylipins are a newly emerging group of signals that serve defence roles or promote virulence. To identify specific host and fungal genes and oxylipins governing the interactions between maize and Fusarium verticillioides, maize wild-type and lipoxygenase3 (lox3) mutant were inoculated with either F. verticillioides wild-type or linoleate-diol-synthase 1-deleted mutant (ΔFvlds1D). The results showed that lox3 mutants were more resistant to F. verticillioides. The reduced colonization on lox3 was associated with reduced fumonisin production and with a stronger and earlier induction of ZmLOX4, ZmLOX5 and ZmLOX12. In addition to the reported defence function of ZmLOX12, we showed that lox4 and lox5 mutants were more susceptible to F. verticillioides and possessed decreased jasmonate levels during infection, suggesting that these genes are essential for jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated defence. Oxylipin profiling revealed a dramatic reduction in fungal linoleate diol synthase 1 (LDS1)-derived oxylipins, especially 8-HpODE (8-hydroperoxyoctadecenoic acid), in infected lox3 kernels, indicating the importance of this molecule in virulence. Collectively, we make the following conclusions: (1) LOX3 is a major susceptibility factor induced by fungal LDS1-derived oxylipins to suppress JA-stimulating 9-LOXs; (2) LOX3-mediated signalling promotes the biosynthesis of virulence-promoting oxylipins in the fungus; and (3) both fungal LDS1- and host LOX3-produced oxylipins are essential for the normal infection and colonization processes of maize seed by F. verticillioides.

The diagnosis of plant pathogenic bacteria: a state of art.

Plant protection plays an important role in agriculture for the food quality and quantity. The diagnosis of plant diseases and the identification of the pathogens are essential prerequisites for their understanding and control. Among the plant pests, the bacterial pathogens have devastating effects on plant productivity and yield. Different techniques (microscopy, serology, biochemical, physiological, molecular tools and culture propagation) are currently used to detect and identify bacterial pathogens. Detection and identification are critical steps for the appropriate application of phytosanitary measures. The "harmonization of phytosanitary regulations and all other areas of official plant protection action" mean the good practices for plant protection and plant material certification. The prevention of diseases progression and spread by early detection are a valuable strategy for proper pest management and disease control. For this purpose, innovative methods aim achieving results within a shorter time and higher performance, to provide rapidly, accurately and reliably diagnosis. In this review, we focus on the techniques for plant bacterial diagnosis and on the regulations for harmonizing plant protection issue.

Tramesan, a novel polysaccharide from Trametes versicolor. Structural characterization and biological effects.

Mushrooms represent a formidable source of bioactive compounds. Some of these may be considered as biological response modifiers; these include compounds with a specific biological function: antibiotics (e.g. plectasin), immune system stimulator (e,g, lentinan), antitumor agents (e.g. krestin, PSK) and hypolipidemic agents (e.g. lovastatin) inter alia. In this study, we focused on the Chinese medicinal mushroom "yun zhi", Trametes versicolor, traditionally used for (cit.) "replenish essence and qi (vital energy)". Previous studies indicated the potential activity of extracts from culture filtrate of asexual mycelia of T. versicolor in controlling the growth and secondary metabolism (e.g. mycotoxins) of plant pathogenic fungi. The quest of active principles produced by T. versicolor, allowed us characterising an exo-polysaccharide released in its culture filtrate and naming it Tramesan. Herein we evaluate the biological activity of Tramesan in different organisms: plants, mammals and plant pathogenic fungi. We suggest that the bioactivity of Tramesan relies mostly on its ability to act as pro antioxidant molecule regardless the biological system on which it was applied.

Careful with That Axe, Gene, Genome Perturbation after a PEG-Mediated Protoplast Transformation in Fusarium verticillioides.

Fusarium verticillioides causes ear rot disease in maize and its contamination with fumonisins, mycotoxins harmful for humans and livestock. Lipids, and their oxidized forms, may drive the fate of this disease. In a previous study, we have explored the role of oxylipins in this interaction by deleting by standard transformation procedures a linoleate diol synthase-coding gene, lds1, in F. verticillioides. A profound phenotypic diversity in the mutants generated has prompted us to investigate more deeply the whole genome of two lds1-deleted strains. Bioinformatics analyses pinpoint significant differences in the genome sequences emerged between the wild type and the lds1-mutants further than those trivially attributable to the deletion of the lds1 locus, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, small deletion/insertion polymorphisms and structural variations. Results suggest that the effect of a (theoretically) punctual transformation event might have enhanced the natural mechanisms of genomic variability and that transformation practices, commonly used in the reverse genetics of fungi, may potentially be responsible for unexpected, stochastic and henceforth off-target rearrangements throughout the genome.

Evaluating Fumonisin Gene Expression in Fusarium verticillioides.

Transcript levels of key genes in a biosynthetic pathway are often taken as a proxy for metabolite production. This is the case of FUM1, encoding the first dedicated enzyme in the metabolic pathway leading to the production of the mycotoxins Fumonisins by fungal species belonging to the genus Fusarium. FUM1 expression can be quantified by different methods; here, we detail a protocol based on quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), by which relative or absolute transcript abundance can be estimated in Fusaria grown in vitro or in planta. As very seldom commercial kits for RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis are optimized for fungal samples, we developed a protocol tailored for these organisms, which stands alone but can be also easily integrated with specific reagents and kits commercially available.