The Yangtze-Hydro Project: a Chinese-German environmental program.

Water of good quality is one of the basic needs of human life. Worldwide, great efforts are being undertaken for an assured water supply. In this respect, one of the largest water technology projects worldwide is the Yangtze Three Gorges Dam in China. There is a need for extensive scientific and technical understanding of the challenges arising from this large hydrological engineering project. German and Chinese groups from various scientific fields are collaborating to provide knowledge for the sustainable management of the reservoir. In this project description, the Yangtze Three Gorges Dam Project, its goals and challenges, are described in brief, and the contributions of the German research projects are presented.

An examination of the effect on cigarette prices and promotions of Philip Morris USA penalties to stores that sell cigarettes to minors.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the potential impact of public policies to regulate price discounting strategies on retail cigarette prices and advertising. Philip Morris USA (PM USA) has a policy designed to sanction stores violating state laws banning illegal tobacco sales to minors by temporarily suspending price discounting incentives. This study examined the impact of those sanctions on retail cigarette prices and sales promotion advertising. METHOD: In November 2006, the California Attorney General's Office informed PM USA that 196 stores were found guilty of illegal underage sales. Of these, 109 stores that participated in the PM USA Retail Leaders Program were notified that their merchandising and/or promotional resources would be suspended for the month of April 2007. The remaining 87 stores were not sanctioned and served as a comparison group. Trained raters assessed advertising and prices of selected PM USA brands in these stores pre-penalty and during the penalty phase. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between sanctioned and non-sanctioned stores on median changes in price and sales promotion advertising from the pre-penalty to the penalty phase. CONCLUSION: The lack of impact on cigarette prices and advertising indicate that the PM USA policy may be flawed in its design or execution. If public policies are developed to restrain cigarette price discounting strategies, they should be crafted to ensure compliance and preclude possible compensatory actions by retailers.

An examination of trends in amount and type of cigarette advertising and sales promotions in California stores, 2002-2005.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette companies spend more of their marketing dollars in stores than in any other venue. In 2005, they spent 88% of a total of $13.1 billion to advertise and promote product sales in stores. AIM: The purposes of this study were to identify how the amount and types of cigarette advertising and sales promotions have changed in stores in California between 2002 and 2005, and to assess neighbourhood influences on cigarette marketing in stores. METHODS: Four observational assessments of cigarette advertising were conducted in approximately 600 California stores that sold cigarettes from 2002 to 2005. Trained observers collected data on the amount and type of cigarette advertising, including signs, product shelving and displays and functional items, and presence of sales promotions on these items. Longitudinal analyses were performed to estimate trends over time and identify correlates of change in the amount and type of tobacco advertising. RESULTS: The mean number of cigarette advertisements per store increased over time from 22.7 to 24.9. The percentage of stores with at least one advert for a sales promotion increased from 68% to 80%. The amount of advertising and proportion of stores with sales promotions increased more rapidly in stores situated in neighbourhoods with a higher proportion of African-Americans. CONCLUSION: The results indicate increasing use of stores to market and promote cigarette sales. Further, these increases are disproportionately accelerating in neighbourhoods with more African-Americans. Legislative strategies should be pursued to control the marketing of tobacco products and promotional strategies used to reduce prices in stores.

How do minimum cigarette price laws affect cigarette prices at the retail level?

OBJECTIVES: Half of US states have minimum cigarette price laws that were originally passed to protect small independent retailers from unfair price competition with larger retailers. These laws prohibit cigarettes from being sold below a minimum price that is set by a formula. Many of these laws allow cigarette company promotional incentives offered to retailers, such as buydowns and master-type programmes, to be calculated into the formula. Allowing this provision has the potential to lower the allowable minimum price. This study assesses whether stores in states with minimum price laws have higher cigarette prices and lower rates of retailer participation in cigarette company promotional incentive programmes. DESIGN: Retail cigarette prices and retailer participation in cigarette company incentive programmes in 2001 were compared in eight states with minimum price laws and seven states without them. New York State had the most stringent minimum price law at the time of the study because it excluded promotional incentive programmes in its price setting formula; cigarette prices in New York were compared to all other states included in the study. RESULTS: Cigarette prices were not significantly different in our sample of US states with and without cigarette minimum price laws. Cigarette prices were significantly higher in New York stores than in the 14 other states combined. CONCLUSIONS: Most existing minimum cigarette price laws appear to have little impact on the retail price of cigarettes. This may be because they allow the use of promotional programmes, which are used by manufacturers to reduce cigarette prices. New York's strategy to disallow these types of incentive programmes may result in higher minimum cigarette prices, and should also be explored as a potential policy strategy to control cigarette company marketing practices in stores. Strict cigarette minimum price laws may have the potential to reduce cigarette consumption by decreasing demand through increased cigarette prices and reduced promotional activities at retail outlets.

Reaching youth at the point of sale: cigarette marketing is more prevalent in stores where adolescents shop frequently.

OBJECTIVE: Although numerous studies describe the quantity and nature of tobacco marketing in stores, fewer studies examine the industry's attempts to reach youth at the point of sale. This study examines whether cigarette marketing is more prevalent in stores where adolescents shop frequently. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Trained coders counted cigarette ads, products, and other marketing materials in a census of stores that sell tobacco in Tracy, California (n = 50). A combination of data from focus groups and in-class surveys of middle school students (n = 2125) determined which of the stores adolescents visited most frequently. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Amount of marketing materials and shelf space measured separately for the three cigarette brands most popular with adolescent smokers and for other brands combined. RESULTS: Compared to other stores in the same community, stores where adolescents shopped frequently contained almost three times more marketing materials for Marlboro, Camel, and Newport, and significantly more shelf space devoted to these brands. CONCLUSIONS: Regardless of whether tobacco companies intentionally target youth at the point of sale, these findings underscore the importance of strategies to reduce the quantity and impact of cigarette marketing materials in this venue.

The relation between community bans of self-service tobacco displays and store environment and between tobacco accessibility and merchant incentives.

OBJECTIVES: These studies investigated (1) the effect of community bans of self-service tobacco displays on store environment and (2) the effect of consumer tobacco accessibility on merchants. METHODS: We counted cigarette displays (self-service, clerk-assisted, clear acrylic case) in 586 California stores. Merchant interviews (N = 198) identified consumer tobacco accessibility, tobacco company incentives, and shoplifting. RESULTS: Stores in communities with self-service tobacco display bans had fewer self-service displays and more acrylic displays but an equal total number of displays. The merchants who limited consumer tobacco accessibility received fewer incentives and reported lower shoplifting losses. In contrast, consumer access to tobacco was unrelated to the amount of monetary incentives. CONCLUSIONS: Community bans decreased self-service tobacco displays; however, exposure to tobacco advertising in acrylic displays remained high. Reducing consumer tobacco accessibility may reduce shoplifting.

Cigarette advertising and promotional strategies in retail outlets: results of a statewide survey in California.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the extent and types of cigarette advertising materials in stores and to assess tobacco company compliance with the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA). DESIGN: A cross-sectional analysis of a random sample of 586 stores that sold cigarettes. SETTING: US state of California. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Trained data collectors classified cigarette advertising materials by type (signs, displays, functional items), location (interior or exterior), and placement (below 3 feet (1 m) or near candy). RESULTS: California retail outlets featured 17.2 (SD 16.1) tobacco advertising materials on average, and 94% of stores featured at least some advertising. About 85% of these were within 4 feet (1.3 m) of the counter. About 50% of the stores had ads at or below 3 feet, and 23% had cigarette product displays next to candy. In violation of the MSA, 3% of stores featured signs with cartoons and 11% had large exterior signs. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco companies are aggressively using stores to market cigarettes. Moreover, the spirit of the MSA-to protect children from cigarette advertising-has not been realised. Future studies should monitor industry use of this venue and assess the impact of exposure to cigarette advertising materials in stores on adult smokers and youth.

Asthma mortality rates among California youths.

Asthma mortality rates for California youths (ages 5-17 years) were examined over the period 1981-1995. Data were analyzed by Poisson regression from the California Departments of Vital Statistics, Finance, and the U.S. Census Bureau. Aggregate statewide mortality demonstrated a 2.01%, statistically insignificant, upward trend without geographic clustering. Stratified race/ ethnicity rates differed significantly, with African-American mortality twice that of the Caucasian population. In addition, an increased number of deaths occurred in households of African-Americans, Caucasians (including Hispanics), and Hispanics with incomes below statewide medians. This study on California youths differs from reports on larger populations with its minimal aggregate increase in asthma mortality, yet mirrors national trends of disproportionate impact on African-Americans and the economically disadvantaged.

Evaluation of a school-based asthma education program for inner-city children.

BACKGROUND: We have previously reported a high prevalence of current asthma-related symptoms affecting predominantly Hispanic, socioeconomically disadvantaged schoolchildren in Southeast San Diego. OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess the impact of a school-based education program on asthma outcomes. METHODS: In cooperation with the San Diego Unified Schools, we developed and implemented a school-based asthma education program. Based on the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute consensus guidelines for asthma, the five-session bilingual, interactive curriculum was conducted in 20-minute segments. Asthma knowledge was tested before and after the education program, and asthma severity was prospectively assessed at monthly intervals. Outcome parameters were compared in educated and control (noneducated) fourth grade students with asthma by using nonparametric techniques. RESULTS: After asthma education, students demonstrated improvement with increases in mean scores for: asthma knowledge quiz from 9.9 (SEM = 0.44, n = 34) to 13.7 (SEM = 0.30); peak flowmeter technique from 3.9 (SEM = 0.33, n = 32) to 6.4 (SEM = 0.29); and inhaler technique from 2.3 (SEM = 0.26, n = 32) to 4.3 (SEM = 0.26). All changes were highly significant (p < or = 0.00001 as determined by Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test). Mean score comparisons for asthmatic control students given paired examinations after a time interval matched with the educated students, did not reach statistical significance: quiz score of 11.3 (SEM = 0.80, n = 11) versus 10.9 (SEM = 0.68), peak flowmeter technique score of 2.6 (SEM = 0.50, n = 18) versus 3.1 (SEM = 0.37) , and inhaler technique score of 2.5 (SEM = 0.37, n = 18) versus 2.2 (SEM = 0.31). Prospective monthly data were collected on 27 educated and 15 control asthmatic subjects. Severity of asthma was not significantly different between groups at entry to the study. Symptom questionnaires, validated for functional asthma severity, revealed a significant reduction in mean symptom scores at 180 days for the educated (2.87, SEM = 0.447) versus the control (4.36, SEM = 0.573) groups (p = 0.0188 as determined by the Mann-Whitney U test). CONCLUSION: Child-centered asthma education can be successfully conducted in the school setting, resulting in increased asthma knowledge, improved skills for peak flowmeter and inhaler use, and a reduction in the severity of asthma symptoms.

Exposure and sensitization to environmental allergen of predominantly Hispanic children with asthma in San Diego's inner city.

BACKGROUND: Environmental living conditions co-sorting with economic status may influence the disease morbidity rate of childhood asthma in ethnic minority urban poor populations. OBJECTIVES: This study was carried out to assess exposure and sensitization to environmental allergens in southeast San Diego children with current asthma-related symptoms and to determine the utility of environmental control measures. METHODS: Children, 9 to 12 years old, with current asthma-related symptoms were identified and enrolled at four school sites. Skin prick testing with aeroallergens was performed, and allergen in collected dust (from mattresses, pillows, and bedroom carpets) was quantified by enzyme immunoassay. Environmental control instruction and products were provided. RESULTS: Of 41 subjects who underwent skin testing, 51.2% were reactive to environmental allergens (39% to mite, 22% to cockroach, and 9.8% to cat). Mean allergen levels for sensitized subjects were: Der p 1 (11 subjects), 18,722 ng/gm dust; Der f 1 (8 subjects), 5345 ng/gm dust; Fel d 1 (3 subjects), 214 ng/gm dust; Bla 1 (8 subjects), 7.15 U/gm dust; and Bla 2 (8 subjects) 7.13 U/gm dust. Environmental allergen exposure levels were not significantly different between sensitized and nonsensitized subjects. Environmental control measures for mite exposure were completed in six homes of sensitized subjects. One month after treatment, allergen levels fell 91.2% for Der p 1, 98.9% for Der f 1, and 88.2% for Fel d 1. One year after treatment, mite and cat allergen levels remained low. Environmental control had no consistent impact on cockroach allergen levels. CONCLUSION: Environmental allergen sensitization and exposure may be cofactors contributing to increased disease severity in urban poor populations.

Current prevalence of asthma-related symptoms in San Diego's predominantly Hispanic inner-city children.

Ethnic minorities of low socioeconomic status are disproportionately represented in the trends of increasing asthma prevalence, morbidity, and mortality. We surveyed a cohort of 998 fourth-grade students in an impoverished area of southeast San Diego with a high percentage of Hispanic Mexican-Americans. Of the 654 Hispanic 9-12-year-olds, 14.4% were categorized as probable current asthma (within the past year), based on symptom of wheezing or physician diagnosis of asthma [with respiratory symptom(s) or medication]. An additional 13.5% had respiratory symptoms indicating possible asthma. Differences by ethnic group in the percentage of probable asthma or related symptoms were highly significant (p < 0.0001). Among Hispanics with a category of probable asthma, only 57.4% had a physician diagnosis versus 80.6% of black and 85.7% of white students. The frequency of health insurance coverage differed significantly between ethnic groups (p < 0.0001), with Hispanics among the lowest (37.2%).