Phthalates and other organic chemicals in agricultural soils after use of different types of conventional and biodegradable plastics.

Various plastic materials are used in contact with agricultural soil, like mulching films, crop covers, weed controlling fabrics and nets. Polyethylene (PE) mulches have already been recognized as a significant source of plastic in soil and they have been shown to contain additives like phthalates, known as endocrine disruptors. However, other agricultural plastics are less studied, and little is known on the substances potentially released from them endangering biodiversity and the human health. This research aims to assess whether different agricultural plastics release additives into soil and to compare the release among various materials. We collected soil samples from 38 agricultural fields where conventional mulching films (PE), weed controlling fabrics (PP), biodegradable mulches based on polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), frost covers (PP), and oxo-degradable films (at least OXO-PE) were used. We analyzed the soils for phthalates and acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), used as plastic additives, and for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and dodecane that have high affinity for plastics. In comparison to the control soils, dibutylphthalate (DBP) and ATBC concentrations were significantly higher in soils mulched with PE and, partly, with biodegradable films. DBP concentration found in soil samples ranged between below the limit of quantification at a control site (1.5 µg kg-1) to 135 µg kg-1 at a site mulched with OXO-PE. The highest ATBC concentration, 22 ± 6 µg kg-1, was registered in a site mulched with PE, showing a statistically significant difference not only in comparison to the controls but also when compared to sites mulched with OXO-PE (p = 0.029) and PBAT (p < 0.009). On the contrary, the use of agricultural plastics did not influence the concentration of PAHs and dodecane. Our results indicate that agricultural plastics are a source of some organic chemicals to agricultural soils, including phthalates that are known for posing threat to soil ecosystem and human health.

Analysis of micro- and nanoplastics in wastewater treatment plants: key steps and environmental risk considerations.

The analysis of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment is a critical objective due to their ubiquitous presence in natural habitats, as well as their occurrence in various food, beverage, and organism matrices. MNPs pose significant concerns due to their direct toxicological effects and their potential to serve as carriers for hazardous organic/inorganic contaminants and pathogens, thereby posing risks to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Understanding the fate of MNPs within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) holds paramount importance, as these facilities can be significant sources of MNP emissions. Additionally, during wastewater purification processes, MNPs can accumulate contaminants and pathogens, potentially transferring them into receiving water bodies. Hence, establishing a robust analytical framework encompassing sampling, extraction, and instrumental analysis is indispensable for monitoring MNP pollution and assessing associated risks. This comprehensive review critically evaluates the strengths and limitations of commonly employed methods for studying MNPs in wastewater, sludge, and analogous environmental samples. Furthermore, this paper proposes potential solutions to address identified methodological shortcomings. Lastly, a dedicated section investigates the association of plastic particles with chemicals and pathogens, alongside the analytical techniques employed to study such interactions. The insights generated from this work can be valuable reference material for both the scientific research community and environmental monitoring and management authorities.

Occurrence of Natural and Synthetic Micro-Fibers in the Mediterranean Sea: A Review.

Among microplastics (MPs), fibers are one of the most abundant shapes encountered in the aquatic environment. Growing attention is being focused on this typology of particles since they are considered an important form of marine contamination. Information about microfibers distribution in the Mediterranean Sea is still limited and the increasing evidence of the high amount of fibers in the aquatic environment should lead to a different classification from MPs which, by definition, are composed only of synthetic materials and not natural. In the past, cellulosic fibers (natural and regenerated) have been likely included in the synthetic realm by hundreds of studies, inflating "micro-plastic" counts in both environmental matrices and organisms. Comparisons are often hampered because many of the available studies have explicitly excluded the micro-fibers (MFs) content due, for example, to methodological problems. Considering the abundance of micro-fibers in the environment, a chemical composition analysis is fundamental for toxicological assessments. Overall, the results of this review work provide the basis to monitor and mitigate the impacts of microfiber pollution on the sea ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea, which can be used to investigate other basins of the world for future risk assessment.

Editorial for the Special Issue "Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects".

The large production and widespread daily consumption of plastic materials-which began in the last century-together with the often-inadequate collection and recycling systems, have made plastics and, consequently, microplastics (MPs) ubiquitous pollutants [...].

Hazardous contaminants in plastics contained in compost and agricultural soil.

Macro-, meso- and microplastic (MAP, MEP, MP) occurrence in compost is an environmental issue whose extent and effects are not yet understood. Here, we studied the occurrence of MAPs, MEPs and MPs in compost samples, and the transfer of hazardous contaminants from plastics to compost and soil. MAPs/MEPs and MPs concentrations in compost were 6.5 g/kg and 6.6 ± 1.5 pieces/kg; from common recommendations for compost application, we estimated ∼4-23 × 107 pieces MPs and 4-29 × 104 g MAPs/MEPs ha-1 per year ending into agricultural soils fertilized with such compost. Regarding contaminants, bis(ethylhexyl) phthalate, acetyl tributyl citrate, dodecane and nonanal were extracted in higher concentrations from plastics and plastic-contaminated compost than from compost where MAPs/MEPs had been removed prior to extraction and analysis. However, some contaminants were present even after MAPs/MEPs removal, ascribable to short- and long-term release by MAPs/MEPs, and to the presence of MPs. DEHP concentration was higher in soils where compost was applied than in fields where it was not used. These results, along with estimations of plastic load to soil from the use of compost, show that compost application is a source of plastic pollution into agricultural fields, and that plastic might transfer hazardous contaminants to soil.

Occurrence and characterization of microplastic and mesoplastic pollution in the Migliarino San Rossore, Massaciuccoli Nature Park (Italy).

Microplastics pollution is progressively threatening natural parks across the world. In the framework of monitoring this concerning trend, the present study focuses on the occurrence and identification of mesoplastics (MEPs) and microplastics (MPs) in sand samples collected before and after the summer season from the beach of the Nature Park of Migliarino San Rossore Massaciuccoli (Pisa, Italy). Meso- and microplastics were identified using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 2D Imaging, and detected in all samples with average concentrations of 207 ± 30 MPs/kg d.w., and 100 ± 44 MEPs/kg d.w., respectively. Seasonal changes of flow of the Arno River, industrial activities, and urban footprint were considered as the major sources of plastic pollution. Our results showed the occurrence of both natural and synthetic polymers including cellulose, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamides, polyethylene terephthalate, and acrylonitrile.

The ability of selected filter materials in removing nutrients, metals, and microplastics from stormwater in biofilter structures.

Creative solutions to manage stormwater include ecologically based designs, such as biofilter structures. A laboratory experiment was established to study the ability of biofilters to remove nutrients, metals, total suspended solids (TSS), and total organic C originating from roadside stormwater as melted snow. Special attention was paid to the removal of P. In addition, the fate of microplastics (MPs) in the biofilters was followed. The materials selected for biofilters were (a) crushed light-expanded clay aggregates without biochar or amended with biochar, (b) Filtralite P clay aggregates, (c) crushed concrete, or (d) filter sand. A layer to support grass growth was placed above these materials. Stormwater was rich in TSS with associated P and metals, which were substantially retained by all biofilters. Filtralite and concrete had almost 100% P removal, but the high pH had adverse effects on plants. Light-expanded clay aggregates had lower retention of P, and, when mixed with biochar (30% v/v), the leaching of P increased and N retention was improved. None of the materials was ideal for treating both nutrients and metals, but sand was generally best. Vegetation improved N retention and stormwater infiltration. Plant roots formed preferential pathways for water and associated substances, evidenced by the accumulation of MPs along root channels. No MPs were found in discharge. Given the high loading of suspended solids and associated contaminants in snowmelt from traffic areas and their efficient retention in biofiltration, results of this study suggest the implementation of such stormwater management solutions along road verges.

Microplastics in the Black Sea sediments.

In this study the occurrence, morphology and identification of microplastics in Black Sea sediments collected at different depths (range 22-2131 m) were determined for the first time. The study explored the advantages and limitations of using a non-invasive method consisting of filtration of the supernatant from the mixture of sediment with saturated NaCl solution followed by FTIR 2D imaging for the identification of natural and synthetic polymers. The proposed method confirmed its potential for clear identification of polyethylene, polypropylene, acrylonitrile, polyamides and cellulose-based fibers, but more difficulties when the filter substrate neighboring the fibers exhibits intense absorptions in the 1800-1000 cm-1 range. Microplastics (MPs) were determined in 83% of the investigated sediment samples. The average abundance in all samples was 106.7 items/kg. The highest pollution occurred on the North-Western shelf where the abundance of MPs was 10 times higher than in sediments from the deep sea. The most abundant plastic polymers were polyethylene and polypropylene, followed by acrylate and acrylonitrile copolymers. Polyamide and cellulose-based textile fibers were also found. The most frequent microplastic colors observed were black, blue and clear/transparent, while fibers represented the dominant microplastics in sediments.

Olive oil-based method for the extraction, quantification and identification of microplastics in soil and compost samples.

Microplastics (MPs) have become a pressing environmental concern over the past few years and their extraction from solid samples is a scientific challenge that needs to be faced and solved. Standardized and validated protocols for MPs extraction are lacking and the existing methodology, such as density separation, is often unable to separate high density polymers. The aim of our research was to develop a non-density based, inexpensive, simple and safe method to extract MPs from soil and compost samples. We tested an oil-based extracting technique exploiting the oleophilic properties of plastics. For validating the method, soil and compost samples were spiked with six different micro-polymers: polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate and polyurethane. The obtained results are promising, and the polymer density had only a small role in the recovery rate: low, medium and high density polymers reached a mean recovery rate of 90% ±2%, 97% ± 5% and 95% ± 4%, respectively.

Microplastics Exposure Causes Negligible Effects on the Oxidative Response Enzymes Glutathione Reductase and Peroxidase in the Oligochaete Tubifex tubifex.

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants, which are considered ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems. The effects of MPs on aquatic biota are still poorly understood, and consequently, there is a need to understand the impacts that MPs may pose to organisms. In the present study, Tubifex tubifex, a freshwater oligochaete commonly used as a bioindicator of the aquatic environment, was exposed to fluorescent polyethylene microspheres (up to 10 µm in size) to test whether the oxidative stress status was affected. The mortality rate of T. tubifex, as well as the activities of the oxidative stress status biomarker enzymes glutathione reductase and peroxidase, were assessed. In terms of oxidative stress, no significant differences between the exposure organisms and the corresponding controls were detected. Even though the data suggest that polyethylene MPs and the selected concentrations did not pose a critical risk to T. tubifex, the previously reported tolerance of T. tubifex to environmental pollution should be taken into account and thus MPs as aquatic pollutants could still represent a threat to more sensitive oligochetes.

Self-contamination from clothing in microplastics research.

Self-contamination should not be underestimated when quantifying microplastics (MPs) in environmental matrices. Standardised and validated methodologies for MP sampling, extraction, and analysis are lacking. The various applications of plastics in our society have made them ubiquitous, even in clothing, rendering MP self-contamination inevitable. In the present study, we sampled lake sediment, snow, and ice, purposefully wearing red overalls composed of cotton; fibres from which we could quantify using Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), serving as an indication of possible self-contamination from clothes. The suitability of cotton as a representation of MP contamination was also evaluated. For all detected fibres, 25 ± 1%, 20 ± 7%, and 8 ± 6% for snow, ice, and sediment, respectively, originated from sampling attire. These findings demonstrate that self-contamination can play a significant role when quantifying MP pollution, highlighting that sampling conducted to date might have overestimated the presence of MP or even contaminated MP-free samples.

Correction to: Assessment of microplastic pollution: occurrence and characterisation in Vesijärvi lake and Pikku Vesijärvi pond, Finland.

In the original publication, Figure 5 and the related text incorrectly referred to a polyurethane fibre; however, it was a possible PET-polyurethane blend.

Assessment of microplastic pollution: occurrence and characterisation in Vesijärvi lake and Pikku Vesijärvi pond, Finland.

In the last few years, several studies have investigated microplastics (MPs) in marine ecosystems, but data monitoring and assessing the occurrence in freshwater environments are still scarce. The present study aims to investigate the occurrence, distribution, and chemical composition of MP pollution in Vesijärvi lake and Pikku Vesijärvi pond close to the city of Lahti (Finland) in winter. Sediment, snow, and ice core samples were collected near the shore of these two aquatic systems. MPs were analysed and identified by a non-destructive method using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) 2D imaging. The mean concentrations of MPs detected in sediment, snow, and ice samples were 395.5 ± 90.7 MPs/kg, 117.1 ± 18.4 MPs/L, and 7.8 ± 1.2 MPs/L, respectively. FTIR results showed the predominant abundance of microplastics, such as polyamides (up to 53.3%), polyethylene and polypropylene (up to 17.1%), and natural fragments such as cellulose (up to 45.8%) and wool (up 18.8%) in the same size range. The potential release of MPs arising from stormwaters and sport and recreational activities was evidenced.

Ingested microplastic as a two-way transporter for PBDEs in Talitrus saltator.

The presence and accumulation of plastic waste into the marine environment are well known environmental issues. Microplastics (MPs) end up in sea waters and, due to their hydrophobicity and high surface/volume ratio, POPs tend to sorb and accumulate to their surface. The supralittoral amphipod Talitrus saltator (T. saltator) was selected to study the role of MPs in the transfer of organic pollutants and to investigate if ingested MPs could either transfer contaminants to biota or clean it adsorbing pollutants taken from the diet. T. saltator is an established POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) biomonitor in coastal environments and it is able to swallow microplastics in natural condition. Two laboratory experiments were performed and T. saltator was exposed to a labelled polybrominated diphenyl ether (13C-labelled BDE-47) to investigate the opposite gradient role of MPs. X Ray Micro-CT (Micro-Computed Tomography) analyses were also performed on sandhopper samples to evaluate the uptake of MPs via digestive tract. The results showed that MPs ingestion could whether transfer and remove contaminants from T. saltator, indicating a partial balance among positive and negative effects. This study has underlined MP potential double role demonstrating that MP can act both as a carrier and scavenger for the bioaccumulation of organic pollutants (i.e. PBDEs), suggesting that chemicals leaching from MPs could have a limited impact to biota.

Microplastic in the surface waters of the Ross Sea (Antarctica): Occurrence, distribution and characterization by FTIR.

This is the first survey to investigate the occurrence and extent of microplastic (MPs) contamination in sub surface waters collected near-shore and off-shore the coastal area of the Ross Sea (Antarctica). Moreover, a non-invasive method to analyze MPs, consisting in filtration after water sampling and analysis of the dried filter through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 2D Imaging, using an FPA detector, was proposed. The non-invasiveness of analytical set-up reduces potential bias and allows subsequent analysis of the filter sample for determination of other classes of contaminants. MPs ranged from 0.0032 to 1.18 particle per m3 of seawater, with a mean value of 0.17 ± 0.34 particle m-3, showing concentrations lower than those found in the oceans worldwide. MPs included fragments (mean 71.9 ± 21.6%), fibers (mean 12.7 ± 14.3%), and others (mean 15.4 ± 12.8%). The presence of different types of MPs was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy, with predominant abundance of polyethylene and polypropylene. The potential environmental impact arising from scientific activities, such as marine activities for scientific purposes, and from the sewage treatment plant, was also evidenced.

Plastic litter in aquatic environments of Maremma Regional Park (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy): Contribution by the Ombrone river and levels in marine sediments.

During two surveys in 2015 and 2016, sediments samples were collected along the Ombrone river (Maremma Regional Park, province of Grosseto, Italy), in particular at its mouth and in the marine area in front of it, in order to quantify, identify and categorize plastic items (macro, meso and micro-plastics and colour, material etc.) and evaluate their potential sources. The Albegna and Osa rivers were identified as external areas of comparison. The results of the analysis showed different situations, especially as regards fluvial inputs, in addition to evidencing local provisions of plastic material derived from agricultural activities. The microplastics values per kg of sediment and the prevailing type of items found largely varied between the investigated sites (45-1069items/kg dry sample).