Lack of detection of Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) in formalin-fixed, paraffin- embedded tissues from porcine abortions in Switzerland.

INTRODUCTION: The novel Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) has been associated in the past years to different porcine diseases, including reproductive failure. The potential occurrence of PCV-3 in abortions from Swiss pig herds has not been investigated so far. Thus, we conducted a retrospective study on pig aborted cases submitted to our laboratory in the University of Bern during the last 10 years with the main aim of investigating the possible presence of PCV-3 in foetal and/or placental tissue. Twelve out of the 53 studied cases showed mild histopathological changes as previously described in PCV-3 positive cases. However, in none of the cases, PCV-3 genetic material could be detected in the examined formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues. In only one third of the cases, a cause for the abortion was found, which is similar to other studies. Our survey suggests that PCV-3 was not involved in the porcine abortion cases submitted over the last decade at our institution in Switzerland.

INTRODUCTION: Le nouveau Circovirus porcin 3 (PCV-3) a été associé ces dernières années à différentes maladies porcines, y compris des troubles de la reproduction. La présence potentielle du PCV-3 dans les avortements de porcs en Suisse n'a pas été étudiée jusqu'à présent. Nous avons donc mené une étude rétrospective sur les cas d'avortements de porcs soumis à notre laboratoire de l'Université de Berne au cours des 10 dernières années, dans le but principal d'étudier la présence éventuelle du PCV-3 dans les tissus fœtaux et/ou placentaires. Douze des 53 cas étudiés présentaient des changements histopathologiques légers, tels que décrits précédemment dans les cas positifs au PCV-3. Cependant, dans aucun des cas, le matériel génétique du PCV-3 n'a pu être détecté dans les tissus examinés fixés au formol et inclus en paraffine. Dans un tiers des cas seulement, une cause d'avortement a été trouvée, ce qui est similaire à d'autres études. Notre étude suggère que le PCV-3 n'a pas été impliqué dans les cas d'avortements porcins soumis au cours de la dernière décennie dans notre institution en Suisse.

Porcine Forebrain Vacuolization Associated with Wasting in Pigs: A Novel Pathological Outcome Associated with Vitamin-Mineral Deficiency?

The term wasting refers to a clinical sign used to describe a physical condition characterized by growth retardation, usually of multifactorial origin. The objective of the present study was to describe for the first time a pathological process characterized by forebrain neuropil vacuolization in pigs showing wasting without conspicuous neurological signs. To characterize the lesions pathologically, affected and non-affected pigs from eight of these farms were investigated. Histologically, the most consistent lesion was neuropil vacuolization of the prosencephalon, mainly located in the thalamic nuclei and in the transition between the white and grey matter of the neocortex (40/56 in sick and 4/30 in healthy pigs). In the most severe cases, the vacuolation also involved the midbrain, cerebellar nuclei and, to a lesser extent, the medulla oblongata. Vacuolization of the forebrain was associated with pigs experiencing marked emaciation and growth retardation. Although the specific cause of the present case remained unknown, the preventive use of multivitamin and mineral complexes in drinking water ameliorated the condition, strongly suggesting a metabolic origin of the observed condition.

Descriptive analyses of maternally-derived antibody levels against porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) in 3- and 21-day-old piglets from farms of four European countries using different vaccination protocols in sows.

BACKGROUND: Up to now, information on the levels of maternally-derived antibodies (MDA) against PCV-2 in suckling piglets born to sows vaccinated with different strategies is scarce in the literature. In the present observational study, the PCV-2-specific MDA titres from piglets from 109 farms (thirty 3-day-old and thirty 21-day-old piglets per farm) across four different European countries (France n = 30, Germany n = 27, Italy n = 22 and Spain n = 30) using different sow vaccination strategies (during gestation, as a gilt, as a piglet or never) were assessed. RESULTS: In all four countries, mean log PCV-2 MDA titres were higher in 3-day-old piglets than in the 3-week-old ones, being significant in most of all the comparisons performed. Within each country, the highest PCV-2-specific MDA titres were observed in the 3-day-old piglets born to sows vaccinated during gestation. Indeed, in the four countries, more than 60% of this subpopulation (3-day-old piglets from sows vaccinated during pregnancy) had the highest log PCV-2 titres detectable with the ELISA technique used in this study. The lowest MDA titres were more variable. Whereas in France and Germany the lowest titres corresponded to 21-day-old piglets born from sows vaccinated as a piglet, in Italy, they corresponded to 21-day-old piglets derived from sows vaccinated as a gilt and in Spain to 21-day-old piglets born from non-vaccinated sows. In this study, PCV-2-specific MDA titres at 3 and 21 days of age were not affected by sow parity. CONCLUSIONS: Data obtained could be considered as a European global overview of PCV-2-specific MDA titres present in the pre-vaccinated piglet populations in different European countries, with titres tending to be higher in younger piglets, but with values variable among countries and sow vaccination strategies.

Comparison of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and porcine circovirus 2 commercial vaccines efficacy when applied separate or combined under experimental conditions.

BACKGROUND: Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (Mhyo) and Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) are two of the most significant infectious agents causing economic losses in the weaning to slaughter period. Due to their similar vaccination age, the objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of two already existing Mhyo (Hyogen®) and PCV-2 (Circovac®) vaccines when administered separately or combined (RTM) by means of Mhyo or PCV-2 experimental challenges. RESULTS: Seven groups of animals were included in the study, being three of them challenged with PCV-2, three with Mhyo and one composed of non-challenged, non-vaccinated pigs. Within each experimental challenge, non-vaccinated (NV) groups were compared with double vaccinated groups using the commercial products separated (VS) or combined (VC). Both vaccinated groups showed significant differences for most parameters measured regarding PCV-2 (serology, percentage of infected animals and viral load in tissues) and Mhyo (serology and gross lesions) when compared to NV groups. VS and VC offered similar results, being only significantly different the PCV-2 antibody values at different time points (higher in the VS group) of the study, although not at the termination day (21 days post-PCV-2 inoculation). CONCLUSION: The present study expands the knowledge on the possibility of using two separate Mhyo and PCV-2 commercial vaccines as a RTM product, which offered equivalent virological, immunological and pathological outcomes as compared to these vaccines when used by separate.

UV-C irradiation is able to inactivate pathogens found in commercially collected porcine plasma as demonstrated by swine bioassay.

Liquid porcine plasma is an animal origin raw material for the manufacturing process of spray-dried porcine plasma that is used in pig nutrition worldwide. In previous studies we found that the application of ultraviolet light C (UV-C) in liquid plasma that was inoculated with a variety of bacteria or viruses of importance in the swine industry can be considered as redundant safety steps because in general achieve around 4 logs reduction for most of these pathogens. However, the final validation of the UV-C light as safety feature should be conducted with commercial liquid plasma and using the pig bioassay model. As a first objective, the potential infectivity of a raw liquid plasma product collected from an abattoir was tested by means of a swine bioassay. We used Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2), a ubiquitous virus that has been systematically detected by PCR in porcine plasma at abattoirs as selection criteria for commercial liquid plasma lot. As a second aim of the study, the effects of different doses of UV-C irradiation on the selected raw liquid plasma were assayed in the animal bioassay. Moreover, other swine infecting agents, including Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), were also determined in the original plasma and monitored in the inoculated animals. Pigs negative for PCV-2 and PRRSV genome and antibodies were allotted to one of five groups (6 to 8 pigs/ group) and injected intra-peritoneally with 10 mL of their assigned inoculum at 50 d of age. Negative control pigs (group 1) were injected with PBS. Positive control pigs (group 5) were injected with a PCV-2 inoculum. Groups 2, 3 and 4 were injected with liquid porcine plasma that had been subjected to 0 (raw plasma), 3000 or 9000 J/L UV-C irradiation, respectively. Group 2 pigs (0 J/L UV-C) got infection by PRRSV but no PCV-2 infection or seroconversion. However, one pig from group 2 seroconverted to Rotavirus A (RVA) and Hepatitis E virus (HEV) and three group 2 pigs seroconverted to Porcine parvovirus (PPV). Groups 1, 3 and 4 pigs showed no evidence of infection or seroconversion associated with the tested viruses or any other pathogens found in the liquid plasma before UV-C irradiation. Group 5 pigs developed PCV-2 infectivity as expected. UV-C irradiation of liquid plasma at 3000 and 9000 J/L was effective in preventing PRRSV and other pathogens transmission. Moreover, raw liquid plasma was non-infectious for PCV-2 in naïve pigs.

Effect of Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) maternally derived antibodies on performance and PCV-2 viremia in vaccinated piglets under field conditions.

BACKGROUND: Nowadays, the most common presentation of PCV-2 is the subclinical infection in piglets after weaning. The success of PCV-2 vaccination is associated with the control of the clinical disease as well as the improvement of production parameters. In consequence, the objective of the present study was to analyse the effect of PCV-2 maternally derived antibody (MDA) levels on vaccine efficacy in piglets vaccinated at three weeks of age with a commercial PCV-2 subunit vaccine. The study was performed analysing a database with 6112 wean-to-slaughter piglets from 4 different European regions. RESULTS: Results showed that the use of the vaccine was able to decrease the PCV-2 viremia calculated as area under the curve (AUC = 60.29 ± 3.73), increase average daily weight gain (ADWG = 0.65 ± 0.01 kg/day) and reduce mortality (7%) in vaccinated piglets compared to non-vaccinated ones (AUC of 198.27 ± 6.14, 0.62 ± 0.01 kg/day and 11% respectively). The overall difference of ADWG between both groups was close to 30 g per day (p < 0.05), also when they were split for low and high levels of MDA titres. Moreover, the animals with the highest ADWG were observed in the group of piglets vaccinated with high or extremely high antibody titres (0.66 and 0.65 kg/day respectively). Considering only animals with extremely high antibody titres, both study groups performed similar, however there was a numerical difference of 10 g/day in favour of vaccinated piglets. Likewise, lack of correlation between ADWG and MDA was observed suggesting that no maternal antibody interference was present with the tested vaccine because the vaccinated animals grew faster compared to unvaccinated control animals, regardless of the level of maternal antibodies present at the time of vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study demonstrated that the MDA against PCV-2 transferred through the colostrum intake has a protective effect against this viral infection. The vaccine used in the present study (Ingelvac CircoFLEX®) was effective when applied at three weeks of age and was not affected by the level of MDA at the time of vaccination.

Diagnostic accuracy of two DNA-based molecular assays for detection of porcine circovirus 3 in swine population using Bayesian latent class analysis.

Molecular-based tools sometimes are the only laboratory techniques available to detect a recently discovered agent, and their validation without the existence of previously described 'gold standard' methods poses a challenge for the diagnosticians. A good example within this scenario is the recently described porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) in the swine population worldwide, from which only few PCR methods have been described. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to estimate the diagnostic accuracy of a direct PCR (dPCR) and a real-time qPCR (qPCR) for detection of PCV-3 in Italian swine population. Bayesian latent class analysis approach was used to rigorously assess their features and applicability in routine diagnostic activity. Data on dPCR and qPCR were available from 116 domestic pigs, which were randomly selected from 55 farms located at different regions in Northern Italy. The sensitivity (Se) estimates of dPCR (94%; posterior credible interval (PCI%) 84-100) and qPCR (96%; PCI% 90-100) were high and similar. The estimated specificity (Sp) of both dPCR and qPCR assays was around 97%. dPCR and qPCR assays showed a high and comparable Se and Sp estimates for the detection of PCV-3 in Italian swine population. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The continuous discovery of new pathogens poses a challenge in the development and evaluation of adequate diagnostic tools. In fact, since molecular-based tools sometimes are the only available laboratory techniques, it is typically difficult to evaluate their diagnostic performances in the absence of a gold standard. The present study assesses this issue, demonstrating the excellent performances of two PCR-based assays for porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) detection using a Bayesian latent class analysis approach. Therefore, the molecular tests evaluated under this study constitute reliable tools for the routine diagnosis and surveillance programs of PCV-3 circulating in swine populations.

Evaluation of ultraviolet-C and spray-drying processes as two independent inactivation steps on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88 and K99 strains inoculated in fresh unconcentrated porcine plasma.

The objectives of this study were to assess the effectiveness of an ultraviolet (UV-C, 254 nm) irradiation system and the spray-drying method as two independent safety steps on inactivation of Escherichia coli K88 and K99 spiked in porcine plasma at 6·46 ± 0·04 log10  ml-1 and 6·78 ± 0·67 log10  ml-1 respectively for UV-C method, and at 7·31 ± 0·39 log10  ml-1 and 7·66 ± 0·11 log10  ml-1 , respectively for the spray-drying method. The UV-C method was performed at different UV light doses (from 750 to 9000 J l-1 ) using a pilot plant UV-C device working under turbulent flow. Spray-drying treatment was done at inlet temperature 220 ± 1°C and two different outlet temperatures, 80 ± 1°C or 70 ± 1°C. Results indicated that UV-C treatment induced a 4 log10 viability reduction for both E. coli at 3000 J l-1 . Full inactivation of both E. coli strains was achieved in all spray-dried samples dehydrated at both outlet temperatures. The special UV-C system design for turbid liquid porcine plasma is a novel treatment that can provide an additional redundant biosafety feature that can be incorporated into the manufacturing process for spray-dried animal plasma. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The safety of raw materials from animal origin such as spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) may be a concern for the swine industry. Ultraviolet treatment at 254 nm (UV-C) of liquid plasma has been proposed as an additional biosafety feature in the manufacturing process of SDPP. We found that UV-C exposure in the liquid plasma at 3000 J l-1 reduces about 4 log10 ml-1 for E. coli K88 and K99. Full inactivation of both E. coli strains was achieved in all spray-dried samples. The incorporation of UV-C treatment to liquid plasma improves the robustness of the SDPP manufacturing process.

Combined effects of spray-drying conditions and postdrying storage time and temperature on Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium survival when inoculated in liquid porcine plasma.

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the spray-drying process on the inactivation of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium spiked in liquid porcine plasma and to test the additive effect of immediate postdrying storage. Commercial spray-dried porcine plasma was sterilized by irradiation and then reconstituted (1:9) with sterile water. Aliquots of reconstituted plasma were inoculated with either S. choleraesuis or S. typhimurium, subjected to spray-drying at an inlet temperature of 200°C and an outlet temperature of either 71 or 80°C, and each spray-drying temperature combinations were subjected to either 0, 30 or 60 s of residence time (RT) as a simulation of residence time typical of commercial dryers. Spray-dried samples were stored at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days. Bacterial counts of each Salmonella spp., were completed for all samples. For both Salmonella spp., spray-drying at both outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 logs at RT 0 s, while there was about a 5·5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days eliminate all detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Safety of raw materials from animal origin like spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) may be a concern for the swine industry. Spray-drying process and postdrying storage are good inactivation steps to reduce the bacterial load of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium. For both Salmonella spp., spray-drying at 71°C or 80°C outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 log at residence time (RT) 0 s, while there was about a 5.5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4.0 ± 3.0°C or 23.0 ± 0.3°C for 15 days was effective for eliminating detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp.

Retrospective detection of Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) in pig serum samples from Spain.

Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) is an emerging circovirus species that has recently been reported in different countries around the world, suggesting a widespread circulation. In this study, sera samples originating from 654 pigs of different production phases and clinical/pathological conditions, submitted for diagnostic purposes between 1996 and 2017, were randomly selected. Detection of PCV-3 genome in such samples was attempted with a previously described PCR method, and the partial genome sequence was obtained from selected PCV-3-positive samples from different years. Compiled data confirmed that PCV-3 has been circulating in the Spanish pig population since 1996. The overall frequency of PCV-3 PCR-positive samples in the study period was 11.47% (75 of 654). Phylogenetic analysis of twelve PCV-3 partial sequences obtained showed a high nucleotide identity with the already known PCV-3 sequences, with minor variations among years. No significant correlation was found between the detection of PCV-3 and any production phase nor clinical/pathological condition. These results confirm PCV-3 circulation at least since 1996 in the Spanish pig population with a low/moderate frequency. Although the information obtained was limited, PCV-3 did not appear to be linked to any specific pathological condition or age group.

Full-genome sequencing of porcine circovirus 3 field strains from Denmark, Italy and Spain demonstrates a high within-Europe genetic heterogeneity.

Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3) is a new species of the Circovirus genus, which has recently been associated with different clinical syndromes. Its presence has been reported in different countries of North and South America, Asia and recently also Europe (Poland). However, different from the other continents, no European PCV3 sequence is currently available in public databases. There is a strong need of epidemiological data and full-genome sequences from Europe because of its relevance in the understanding of PCV3 molecular epidemiology and control. To fill this lack of information, samples collected in Denmark, Italy and Spain in 2016 and 2017 were screened for PCV3. Of the Danish samples, 36 of 38 the lymph nodes, six of 20 serum samples and two of 20 lung samples tested positive. Similarly, 10 of 29 lungs, 20 of 29 organ pools, six of 33 sera and one of eight nasal swabs tested PCV3 positive in Italy. Fourteen of 94 serum pools from seven of 14 Spanish farms were also positive. Despite the convenience nature of the sampling prevents any precise prevalence estimation, the preliminary screening of the data from three European countries confirmed a rather wide PCV3 distribution in Europe. Furthermore, the analysis of the six obtained complete European PCV3 genomes and their comparison with the public available sequences seems to support a remarkable worldwide PCV3 circulation. These results underline once more the urgency of more extensive epidemiological studies to refine the current knowledge on PCV3 evolution, transmission, spreading patterns and impact on pig health.

Update on Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infections in pigs: Knowledge gaps for improved disease control.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (M. hyopneumoniae) is the primary pathogen of enzootic pneumonia, a chronic respiratory disease in pigs. Infections occur worldwide and cause major economic losses to the pig industry. The present paper reviews the current knowledge on M. hyopneumoniae infections, with emphasis on identification and analysis of knowledge gaps for optimizing control of the disease. Close contact between infected and susceptible pigs is the main route of M. hyopneumoniae transmission. Management and housing conditions predisposing for infection or disease are known, but further research is needed to better understand M. hyopneumoniae transmission patterns in modern pig production systems, and to assess the importance of the breeding population for downstream disease control. The organism is primarily found on the mucosal surface of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. Different adhesins and lipoproteins are involved in the adherence process. However, a clear picture of the virulence and pathogenicity of M. hyopneumoniae is still missing. The role of glycerol metabolism, myoinositol metabolism and the Mycoplasma Ig binding protein-Mycoplasma Ig protease system should be further investigated for their contribution to virulence. The destruction of the mucociliary apparatus, together with modulating the immune response, enhances the susceptibility of infected pigs to secondary pathogens. Clinical signs and severity of lesions depend on different factors, such as management, environmental conditions and likely also M. hyopneumoniae strain. The potential impact of strain variability on disease severity is not well defined. Diagnostics could be improved by developing tests that may detect virulent strains, by improving sampling in live animals and by designing ELISAs allowing discrimination between infected and vaccinated pigs. The currently available vaccines are often cost-efficient, but the ongoing research on developing new vaccines that confer protective immunity and reduce transmission should be continued, as well as optimization of protocols to eliminate M. hyopneumoniae from pig herds.

First report of the novel atypical porcine pestivirus in Spain and a retrospective study.

This study aimed to provide information regarding viral pathogenesis and molecular epidemiology linked with recently reported atypical porcine pestivirus (APPV) strains and to determine the circulation of APPV in Spain from 1997 to 2016. Two-day-old piglets with moderate-severe congenital tremor (CT) from a Spanish farm were received for diagnostic purposes. Sera, nasal and rectal swabs and tissue samples were collected. qRT-PCR was performed in these samples, and a retrospective study to detect APPV RNA was carried out using a serum collection from 1997 to 2016. APPV genome was identified with high and moderate RNA loads in different tissues of the CT affected pigs. High APPV RNA load was detected in lymphoid organs, suggesting that these constitute a target for APPV replication. In 89 of the 642 retrospectively analysed samples (13.9%), APPV genome was detected. CT cases were related to the presence of APPV in viraemic piglets below 1 week of age, in which the viral RNA load was the highest. A considerable number of animals between 4 and 14 weeks of age and some 1-week-old piglets were viraemic in the absence of CT, which can act as carriers of the virus. The relative risk of APPV and CT was 8.5 (CI 95% 5.8-12.5). Thus, our data show that APPV infection is epidemiologically related to CT. Phylogenetic analysis from 1615 NS2-3 nucleotides showed only one defined APPV clade, grouping the most phylogenetically related strains from Europe and China. Of this clade, there are other strains from Europe, USA and China. This data confirm the high APPV genetic diversity, not being able to cluster this virus according to the geographic area. Our result showed that APPV has been circulating in Spain at least since 1997, being the earliest date of detection of this virus worldwide and suggesting that APPV may be widespread.

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus experimental transmission using a pig model.

Dromedary camels are the main reservoir of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), but other livestock species (i.e., alpacas, llamas, and pigs) are also susceptible to infection with MERS-CoV. Animal-to-animal transmission in alpacas was reported, but evidence for transmission in other species has not been proved. This study explored pig-to-pig MERS-CoV transmission experimentally. Virus was present in nasal swabs of infected animals, and limited amounts of viral RNA, but no infectious virus were detected in the direct contact pigs. No virus was detected in the indirect contact group. Furthermore, direct and indirect contact pigs did not develop specific antibodies against MERS-CoV. Therefore, the role of pigs as reservoir is probably negligible, although it deserves further confirmation.

Senecavirus A.

Senecavirus A (SVA) is the only member of the genus Senecavirus within the family Picornaviridae. This virus was discovered as a serendipitous finding in 2002 (and named Seneca Valley virus 001 [SVV-001]) while cultivating viral vectors in cell culture and has been proposed for use as an oncolytic virus to treat different types of human neoplasia. SVA was found in lesions in pigs affected by porcine idiopathic vesicular disease in Canada and the USA in 2008 and 2012, respectively. In 2014 and 2015, SVA infection was associated with outbreaks of vesicular disease in sows as well as neonatal pig mortality in Brazil and the USA. Phylogenetic analysis of the SVA VP1 indicates the existence of 3 clades of the virus. Clade I contains the historical strain SVV-001, clade II contains USA SVA strains identified between 1988 and 1997, and clade III contains global SVA strains from Brazil, Canada, China, and the USA identified between 2001 and 2015. The aim of this review is to draw the attention of veterinarians and researchers to a recently described infectious clinical-pathologic condition caused by a previously known agent (SVA). Apart from the intrinsic interest in a novel virus infecting pigs and causing economic losses, the major current concern is the similarity of the clinical picture to that of other swine diseases, because one of them-foot and mouth disease-is a World Organization for Animal Health-listed disease. Because the potential association of SVA with disease is rather new, there are still many questions to be resolved.

Distribution and genetic characterization of Enterovirus G and Sapelovirus A in six Spanish swine herds.

The prevalence of Enterovirus G (EV-G) and Sapelovirus A (PSV-1) was investigated in Spanish swine herds by means of cross-sectional studies. Faecal samples from clinically healthy pigs were collected from six farms, and analysed by RT-PCR. The results indicated a high prevalence of EV-G detected in nearly all the animals older than 3 weeks of age. Otherwise, PSV-1 was only detected in 3-week-old piglets from one of the farms. Genetic analyses performed in the VP1 region of the EV-G indicated circulation of diverse strains in the same farm, related to genotypes G1, G2, G3, G4, G6, G9, G12, G13 and G14. Moreover, co-infection of several PSV-1 variants in the same animal was evident, typical of viral quasispecies. Evolutionary pressure analysis indicated that microevolution of PSV-1 seems to be driven by negative selection. This study gives further insights in the epidemiology of EV-G and PSV-1.

Assessment of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae-induced Pneumonia using Different Lung Lesion Scoring Systems: a Comparative Review.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the primary aetiological agent of swine enzootic pneumonia (EP) and one of the major contributors to the porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). Gross lung lesions in pigs affected by EP consist of cranioventral pulmonary consolidation (CVPC), usually distributed bilaterally in the apical, intermediate, accessory and cranial parts of the diaphragmatic lobes. Several lung scoring methods are currently in place for the evaluation of CVPC. The aims of this study were (1) to review the lung lesion scoring systems used to assess pneumonia associated with M. hyopneumoniae infection, and (2) to evaluate eight of these scoring systems by applying them to the lungs of 76 pigs with experimentally-induced M. hyopneumoniae pneumonia. A significant correlation between all lung lesion scoring systems was observed and the coefficients of determination in a regression analysis were very high between each pair-wise comparison, except for a unique scoring system based on image analysis. A formula of equivalence between lung scoring methods was developed in order to compare the results obtained with these methods. The present review provides a basis for comparison (even retrospectively) of lesions evaluated using different lung scoring systems.

C-reactive protein, haptoglobin and Pig-Major acute phase protein profiles of pigs infected experimentally by different isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus (PRRSV) is the etiologic agent of PRRS, one of the most important diseases in swine worldwide. In the present work, the effects of different PRRSV strains were tested on a piglet experimental model to study the induced acute phase response. For this purpose, pigs (n=15 for each group) were intranasally inoculated with one of five PRRSV strains (isolates EU10, 12, 17, 18 from genotype 1 and isolate JA-142 from genotype 2). The acute phase response was monitored by measuring acute phase proteins (APPs). Specifically, the serum concentration of haptoglobin (Hp), C-reactive protein (CRP) and Pig-Major Acute Protein (Pig-MAP) was determined at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21 days p.i. Clinical signs and growth performance were also monitored during the experiment. All animals became viremic after inoculation during the study period. The APP response was heterogeneous and dependent on the strain, being strains EU10, EU 18 and JA-142 those that induced the highest response and the strongest clinical signs. In general, Hp was the most sensitive biomarker for PRRSV infection, CRP behaved as moderate and Pig-MAP was the less responsive during the course of PRRSV experimental infection. Hp and CRP were significantly discriminatory between infected and control pigs, but not Pig-MAP.

Six-Year Follow-up of Slaughterhouse Surveillance (2008-2013): The Catalan Slaughterhouse Support Network (SESC).

Meat inspection has the ultimate objective of declaring the meat and offal obtained from carcasses of slaughtered animals fit or unfit for human consumption. This safeguards the health of consumers by ensuring that the food coming from these establishments poses no risk to public health. Concomitantly, it contributes to animal disease surveillance. The Catalan Public Health Protection Agency (Generalitat de Catalunya) identified the need to provide its meat inspectors with a support structure to improve diagnostic capacity: the Slaughterhouse Support Network (SESC). The main goal of the SESC was to offer continuing education to meat inspectors to improve the diagnostic capacity for lesions observed in slaughterhouses. With this aim, a web-based application was designed that allowed meat inspectors to submit their inquiries, images of the lesions, and samples for laboratory analysis. This commentary reviews the cases from the first 6 years of SESC operation (2008-2013). The program not only provides continuing education to inspectors but also contributes to the collection of useful information on animal health and welfare. Therefore, SESC complements animal disease surveillance programs, such as those for tuberculosis, bovine cysticercosis, and porcine trichinellosis, and is a powerful tool for early detection of emerging animal diseases and zoonoses.