Profile of gym-goers who do not use performance-enhancement substances.

Introduction: Currently the use of prohibited performance-enhancing substances (PES) in fitness and gym settings is a public health concern as adverse health consequences are emerging. Understanding the characteristics of gym-goers who do not use these substances could lead to an important complement to the ongoing research about risk factors for PES use. The aim of this study was to identify the profile of PES non-use in gym-goers. Methods: In total, 453 gym-goers (mean age = 35.64 years; SD = 13.08 - measure of central tendency location and measure of absolute dispersion, respectively) completed an online survey assessing sociodemographic factors, exercise characteristics, gym modalities, peers, social influence, attitudes, subjective norms, beliefs, intentions, and self-reported use of PES. Results: Decision Trees showed that being a woman, training less frequently, not practicing bodybuilding and having a negative intention to consume PES were identified as characteristics of non-users of PES. Discussion: These results may support evidence-based anti-doping interventions to prevent abusive use of PES in the fitness context.

Refining the Short Version of the Leadership Scale for Sports: Factorial Validation and Measurement Invariance.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the factorial validity and measurement invariance of the short version of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980): coaches' perceptions of their own behavior, athletes' preferences and athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior. This validation will allow researchers to minimize time demands on participants. Three independent samples of athletes (n1 = 373; n2 = 817; n3 = 246) and two samples of coaches (n1 = 115; n2 = 351) were studied to examine the factorial validity and measurement invariance of the 25-item version of the LSS (LSS-25; Chiu et al., 2016). Findings indicated that a 15-item version (LSS-15) fits the data better than the LSS-25. The LSS-15 showed factorial validity and proved to have adequate reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis showed that its factor structure was invariant across two independent samples and across gender for athletes' perceived and preferred versions. Significant relationships between the LSS-15 subscales and athlete satisfaction also demonstrate criterion validity. These findings support a valid and reliable alternative to the original LSS long-form, especially in applied settings when time constraints require a brief measure of leadership or when study designs include multiple variables.

Prevalence of Performance-Enhancing Substance Use and Associated Factors among Portuguese Gym/Fitness Users.

Background: Nowadays, doping is not confined to elite sport, it is also spread throughout gymnasia and fitness centers, and it is seen as a public health concern. Studies focusing on performance-enhancing substances (PES) use among gym users are few and mostly concern the practice of bodybuilding and the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), without providing information about social indicators to further explore why this specific population use these substances. Objectives: To investigate the extent of PES use and examine the way social indicators, exercise profile and gym modalities influence the use of these substances among a sample of gym users. Methods: Cross-sectional descriptive study, among a convenience sample of 453 Portuguese gym users, recruited directly by five institutional gyms´ email and Facebook. Data were collected via a structured web-based survey, between October and November 2017. Multiple binary logistic regression, the Chi-Square test or Monte Carlo Simulation or Fisher's Exact test were used. The odds ratios and their respective 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Results: 11,1% of gym users reported the use of prohibited PES, which varies significantly according to gender, education, exercise profile and type of practice. Gender was associated with the class of PES used. Polypharmacy was a common practice among users, increasing the risk of side-effects. Peer effect and media appear to be strikingly important in the misuse of PES. Conclusion: Results provide precise insight into the specific factors associated with PES use, which could support prevention strategies in gym/fitness context.

Physical Activity, Sports Practice, and Cognitive Functioning: The Current Research Status.

The evidence for the benefits of physical activity on cognitive functioning has increased in recent years. Although the relationship between these variables has been analyzed for decades, the development of evaluation techniques has resolved several issues and advanced this area of knowledge. Moreover, several authors have pointed out the association between the cognitive functioning of athletes and their performance in competition. These recent studies suggest that some specific cognitive abilities of athletes could help them become more effective and improve their chances of success. The objective of this paper was to identify the most relevant advances in these areas of study and to highlight more promising lines of research for the next few years. We have discussed findings from the application of different physical activity programs as well as the most significant cognitive performance variables for sports practice. The limitations of the findings were also discussed.

Perceptions of Parenting Practices and Psychological Variables of Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Athletes.

Drawing from the model of parental involvement in sport, the overall purpose was to examine the associations of perceptions of parenting practices (encouragement, reinforcement, instruction, and role modeling) and athletes' psychological variables (self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, self-regulation, and intrinsic motivation) of elite and sub-elite youth athletes. Participants were elite (n = 210) and sub-elite (n = 635) athletes aged between 14 and 18 years (M age = 16.58, SD = 1.33). Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that young elite athletes' perceptions of sport-related parenting practices are associated with their psychological skills and performance level in sport. Specifically, in comparison with their sub-elite peers, perceptions of parental encouragement had a significantly different strong effect on intrinsic motivation. Moreover, perceptions of parental modeling revealed different effects on performance level, as well as on intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation. These perceptions of parenting practices may promote a positive learning environment, resulting in an increased likelihood of achieving a high level of sport performance in comparison with their sub-elite peers.

Determinants of the Intention to Use Performance-Enhancing Substances Among Portuguese Gym Users.

The purpose of this study is to examine the determinants of the intentions to use prohibited performance-enhancing substances (PES) and to test the Theory of Planned Behavior's usefulness in predicting self-reported PES use in both genders. A convenience sample of Portuguese gym users (n = 453) completed an anonymous web-based survey. Structural equation modeling, multigroup analysis, and t-test with the Welch correction for heterokedastic variances were used. At the structural level, results support attitudes, beliefs, and subjective norms in predicting intentions to PES use in gym users, with subjective norms being its strongest predictor. Moreover, results showed a significant association between self-reported PES use and intentions to use. The predictive model was invariant across genders; however, compared to males, females believed less in the performance-enhancing effects of PES, were less prone to the influence of significant others, and had weaker intentions to use these substances. Psychological strategies should be based on subjective norms, alongside beliefs and attitudes, toward PES use as these variables influence the intention to use PES in this particular population.

Psychometric properties of the Questionnaire of Attitudes towards Doping in Fitness (QAD-Fit)

Abstract Aim: The purpose of this study was to test the psychometric proprieties of the Questionnaire of Attitudes towards Doping in Fitness (QAD-Fit), originally developed by Serpa and colleagues and adapted to Portuguese gym/fitness context. Methods: A cross-sectional survey utilizing a web self-administered questionnaire was used. The sample was composed of 453 gym/fitness center practitioners, aged between sixteen and seventy-nine years old (M = 35.64; SD = 13.08), enrolled in several gym activities. Results: The confirmatory factorial analysis provided support to the four-factor structure proposed. All factors displayed good internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. The multi-group analysis revealed cross-validity and the model´s invariance. The correlation between QAD-Fit and the Doping-related Theory of Planned Behavior Measures (DRTPBM) revealed evidence of its concurrent validity. Conclusion: The findings of this research revealed that QAD-Fit is a psychometrically valid and reliable instrument to assess attitudes towards doping consumption in gym and fitness settings.

Fear of failure in sport: a portuguese cross-cultural adaptation

Abstract The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI) is a multidimensional measure of threat appraisals associated with one's fear of failure. Whilst emerging research has supported the validity and reliability of the PFAI with North American and British sport participants, its psychometric proprieties remain untested within Portuguese samples. This study examined the psychometric proprieties of the PFAI with a sample of 556 Portuguese athletes. A confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test whether the proposed multi-factorial structure of the PFAI fits well the Portuguese data.All factors displayed good internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Multi-group analysis revealed cross-validity and the models' invariance. The correlations between fear of failure and sport anxiety measures revealed evidence of its concurrent validity. The PFAIappears to be a psychometrically sound measure anda valid and reliable tool for assessing fear of failure in Portuguese sport contexts.

Psychometric properties of the Burnout Inventory for Referees / Propriedades psicométricas do Inventário de Burnout para Árbitros / Propriedades psicométricas del Inventário de Burnout para Árbitros

The purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Burnout Inventory for Referees (BIR) in Portuguese in a sample of professional soccer referees and to explore the nomological validity of the inventory through concurrent validation. The analysis showed a factorial structure of burnout for the referees with one second order factor and three first order factors; physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment and sport devaluation. A cross-validation procedure showed that the factor structure was replicable, and the inventory demonstrated internal reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, the study assessed the concurrent validity of the inventory by examining the correlation between the scores of the Burnout Inventory for Referees and the scores of the Profile of Mood States (POMS). The subscales of burnout and total burnout were positively correlated with tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion and negatively with vigor, as expected. In conclusion, the Portuguese version of BIR presents good evidence of validity and reliability in the assessment of referees who may be at risk of suffering from burnout...

"Propriedades psicométricas do Inventário de Burnout para Árbitros." O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as propriedades psicométricas do Inventario de Burnout para Árbitros (BIR) em português em uma amostra de árbitros de futebol profissional e explorar a validade nomológica do inventário através da validação concorrente. A análise mostrou uma estrutura fatorial de burnout para os árbitros com um segundo fator de ordem e três primeiros fatores de ordem; esgotamento físico e emocional, reduzido senso de realização e desvalorização esportiva. Um procedimento de validação mostrou que a estrutura de fator é replicável e o inventario apresenta uma confiabilidade interna, validade convergente e discriminante. Além do mais, o estudo avaliou a validade concorrente do inventario através da correlação entre os escores do BIR e o Perfil dos Estados de Humor (POMS). As subescalas de burnout e o burnout total se correlacionaram positivamente com a tensão, depressão, raiva, fadiga e confusão e negativamente com vigor, como esperado. Para concluir, o BIR em português mostrou ser confiável e válido na avaliação de árbitros que podem estar em situação de risco para o burnout...

"Propriedades psicométricas del Inventário de Burnout para Árbitros." El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar las propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Burnout para Árbitros (BIR) en portugués en una muestra de árbitros de fútbol profesional y explorar la validez nomological del inventario a través de la validación concurrente. El análisis mostró una estructura del factorial de burnout para los árbitros con un segundo factor de orden y tres primeros factores de orden; agotamiento físico y emocional, sentido de realización reducido y devaluación del deporte. Un procedimiento de validación mostró que la estructura del factor era replicable, y el inventario demostró la fiabilidad interna, validez convergente y discriminante. Además, el estudio evaluó la validez concurrente del inventario a través de la correlación entre los escores del BIR y el Perfil de los Estados de Humor (POMS). Las sub-escalas de burnout y burnout total se correlacionaron positivamente con tensión, depresión, rabia, fatiga y confusión y negativamente con el vigor, como esperado. Para concluir, el BIR en portugués presenta el testimonio confiable de validez y fiabilidad en la evaluación de árbitros que pueden estar en peligro del sufrimiento de burnout...

Validação do Questionário de Ambiente de Grupo (GEQ) para a língua portuguesa / Validation of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) for Portuguese language

O objetivo deste estudo foi traduzir o Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) para a língua portuguesa e verificar sua validade por meio da análise fatorial confirmatória, consistência interna e fidedignidade teste-reteste. Participaram do estudo sete profissionais (quatro tradutores e três professores doutores em Psicologia do Esporte) e 502 atletas de modalidades coletivas do estado do Paraná. A versão na língua portuguesa foi obtida por meio do método de tradução cross-cultural. Para a análise dos dados, utilizaram-se a análise fatorial confirmatória, o alfa de Cronbach e o coeficiente de correlação intraclasses. Os resultados evidenciaram que a versão para a língua portuguesa contém questões claras e pertinentes, apresentando o Coeficiente de Validade de Conteúdo (CVCt) > 0,70; apresenta consistência interna satisfatória (r>0,70) e fidedignidade teste-reteste aceitável (r > 0,80). A análise fatorial confirmatória demonstrou que os itens 2 ("Eu estou feliz com a quantidade de tempo que tenho jogado") e 5 ("Alguns dos meus melhores amigos estão nesta equipe") não apresentaram confiabilidade individual aceitável, sendo assim excluídos. O modelo com 16 itens apresentou índices de ajustamento satisfatórios de validade fatorial confirmatória. Concluiu-se que a versão brasileira do GEQ demonstrou boas características psicométricas e se mostrou válida para avaliar a coesão de grupo em equipes esportivas.

This study aimed to translate the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) to the Portuguese language and check its validity by validating the items through confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of this version. The subjects were seven professionals (four translators and three doctors in Sport Psychology) and 502 athletes of different kinds of collective sports of the state of Paraná. The Portuguese version was obtained from the method of cross-cultural translation. For data analysis it was used confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha and the intraclass correlation coefficient. The results showed the Brazilian version contains clear and relevant items, showing Coefficient of Content Validity (CVC) > 0,70; it shows satisfactory internal consistency (r > 0,70) and acceptable test-retest reliability (r > 0,80). The confirmatory factor analysis showed that items 2 ("I'm happy with the amount of playing time I get") and 5 ("Some of my best friends are on this team") don't demonstrated acceptable reliability individually, thus they were excluded; the model with 16 items had satisfactory indices of fit of confirmatory factorial validity. It was concluded that Brazilian version of the GEQ has shown good psychometric characteristics and it proved to be valid to assess the group cohesion in sports teams.

Psicologia dos talentos em desporto: um olhar sobre a investigação / Psychology of sports talents: a glance into the research

O talento caracteriza-se por um nível de mestria superior que resulta de um desenvolvimento sistemático de competências numa ou várias áreas de atividade humana (GAGNÉ, 2009). No contexto desportivo, para que se verifique a prossecução deste nível de mestria é necessário que os atletas indiciem um bom desenvolvimento, antropométrico, fisiológico, técnico, tático e psicológico (ELFERINK-GEMSER et al, 2004). Face à diversidade e complexidade de fatores envolvidos, o processo de desenvolvimento de talentos requer um acompanhamento dinâmico e holístico, característico das abordagens interaccionistas que consideram o indivíduo, a sua herança genética e a influência de variáveis psicossociais (BAKER; DAVIDS, 2007). Este trabalho tem como objetivo efetuar uma análise de literatura científica relevante na área dos talentos desportivos de forma a, por um lado, compreender as principais dificuldades sentidas pelos autores que se dedicam a esta temática e, por outro, identificar novas variáveis de estudo e linhas metodológicas de investigação passíveis de serem exploradas no futuro.

Talent is characterized by a higher level of mastery resulting from a systematic development of skills in one or more fields of human activity (GAGNÉ, 2009). In the context of sports, to achieve this level of mastery, athletes must demonstrate well-developed anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics (ELFERINK-GEMSER et al, 2004). Given the diversity and complexity of factors involved, the development process of talents in sport requires a holistic and dynamic monitoring, typical of interactionist approaches which consider the individual, his/her genetic inheritance and the influence of psycho-social variables (BAKER; DAVIDS, 2007). This study aims at conducting an analysis of the relevant scientific literature in this area, in order to understand, firstly, the main problems encountered by the experts who study this subject, and secondly, to identify new variables of study and methodological approaches of research that may be explored in the future.

Change in body image and psychological well-being during behavioral obesity treatment: Associations with weight loss and maintenance.

This study reports on outcomes from a behavioral obesity treatment program, evaluating if treatment-related changes in body image and psychological well-being are predictors of weight change during treatment and after follow-up. Participants were 142 overweight/obese women (BMI=30.2+/-3.7kg/m(2); age=38.3+/-5.8 years) participants in a behavioral treatment program consisting of a 4-month treatment period and a 12-month follow-up. Psychosocial variables improved during treatment and these changes were correlated with 4-month weight reduction. Short-term changes in body size dissatisfaction (p=.002) and mood (p=.003) predicted long-term weight loss. Additional results suggest that there might be a predictive role of short-term changes in body size dissatisfaction and self-esteem on long-term weight loss after accounting for initial weight change (p<.028). We conclude that, along with weight changes, cognitive and affect-related processes influenced during obesity treatment may be related long-term success, in some cases independently of initial weight loss.

Interpersonal pattern dynamics and adaptive behavior in multiagent neurobiological systems: conceptual model and data.

Ecological dynamics characterizes adaptive behavior as an emergent, self-organizing property of interpersonal interactions in complex social systems. The authors conceptualize and investigate constraints on dynamics of decisions and actions in the multiagent system of team sports. They studied coadaptive interpersonal dynamics in rugby union to model potential control parameter and collective variable relations in attacker-defender dyads. A videogrammetry analysis revealed how some agents generated fluctuations by adapting displacement velocity to create phase transitions and destabilize dyadic subsystems near the try line. Agent interpersonal dynamics exhibited characteristics of chaotic attractors and informational constraints of rugby union boxed dyadic systems into a low dimensional attractor. Data suggests that decisions and actions of agents in sports teams may be characterized as emergent, self-organizing properties, governed by laws of dynamical systems at the ecological scale. Further research needs to generalize this conceptual model of adaptive behavior in performance to other multiagent populations.

Reciprocal effects among changes in weight, body image, and other psychological factors during behavioral obesity treatment: a mediation analysis.

BACKGROUND: Changes in body image and subjective well-being variables (e.g. self-esteem) are often reported as outcomes of obesity treatment. However, they may, in turn, also influence behavioral adherence and success in weight loss. The present study examined associations among obesity treatment-related variables, i.e., change in weight, quality of life, body image, and subjective well-being, exploring their role as both mediators and outcomes, during a behavioral obesity treatment. METHODS: Participants (BMI = 31.1 +/- 4.1 kg/m2; age = 38.4 +/- 6.7 y) were 144 women who attended a 12-month obesity treatment program and a comparison group (n = 49), who received a general health education program. The intervention included regular group meetings promoting lasting behavior changes in physical activity and dietary intake. Body image, quality of life, subjective well-being, and body weight were measured at baseline and treatment's end. Mediation was tested by multiple regression and a resampling approach to measure indirect effects. Treatment group assignment was the independent variable while changes in weight and in psychosocial variables were analyzed alternatively as mediators and as dependent variables. RESULTS: At 12 months, the intervention group had greater weight loss (-5.6 +/- 6.8% vs. -1.2 +/- 4.6%, p < .001) and larger decreases in body size dissatisfaction (effect size of 1.08 vs. .41, p < .001) than the comparison group. Significant improvements were observed in both groups for all other psychosocial variables (effect sizes ranging from .31-.75, p < .05). Mediation analysis showed that changes in body image and body weight were concurrently mediators and outcomes of treatment, suggesting reciprocal influences. Weight loss partially mediated the effect of treatment on quality of life and on self-esteem but the reciprocal effect was not observed. CONCLUSION: Changes in weight and body image may reciprocally affect each other during the course of behavioral obesity treatment. No evidence of reciprocal relationships was found for the other models under analysis; however, weight changes partially explained the effects of treatment on quality of life and self-esteem. Weight and psychosocial changes co-occur during treatment and will probably influence each other dynamically, in ways not yet adequately understood. Results from this study support the inclusion of intervention contents aimed at improving body image in weight management programs.

Disposições pessoais de tenistas jovens: um estudo fundamentado na teoria bioecológica de Bronfenbrenner / Personal dispositions of young tennis players: a study supported by the Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory / Temperamentos personales de jugadores jóvenes del tenis: un estudio respaldado por la teoría bioecológica de Bronfenbrenner

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as disposições pessoais de tenistas jovens com suporte na Teoria Bioecológica de Bronfenbrenner. Os dados coletados por Copetti (2001) para sua tese de doutorado foram usados para uma metanálise. Foram identificadas quatro categorias de análise: disposição para engajamento, disposição para permanência, disposição para o abandono e disposição pra reorganizar ações. Os resultados enfatizaram a necessidade de se utilizar os fatores de interação sugeridos no modelo bioecológico e concluiu-se que qualquer avaliação de atributos pessoais de tenistas jovens dependerá da continuidade e descontinuidade de suas disposições pessoais, bem como da interação dos demais fatores que compõe o modelo da Teoria Bioecológica.(AU)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the young tennis players' personal dispositions with support on the of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory. The data collected by Copetti (2001) for his doctoral dissertation were used for a metanalysis. They were identified four categories of analysis: disposition for engagement, disposition for permanence, disposition for the abandonment and disposition for reorganizing actions. The results emphasized the need to use the interaction factors suggested in the bioecological model and it was concluded that any evaluation of young tennis players' personal attributes will depend on the continuity and discontinuity of their personal dispositions, as well as of the interaction of the other factors that composes Bioecological Theory’s model.(AU)

El objetivo de este estudio fue valorar a los temperamentos personales de jugadores jóvenes del tenis, con el soporte en la Teoría Bioecológica de Bronfenbrenner. Los datos coleccionados por Copetti (2001) para su tesis de doctorado fueron usados para un metanálisis. Cuatro categorías de análisis fueron identificadas: el temperamento para la confrontación, el temperamento para la permanencia, el temperamento para el abandono y el temperamento para las demandas se reorganizando. Los resultados enfatizaron la necesidad de usar la interacción que los factores del modelo bioecológico y si concluyo que cualquier evaluación de los atributos personales de jugadores jóvenes del tenis dependerá de la continuidad y la discontinuidad de sus temperamentos personales, y también de la interacción de los otros factores que compone el modelo de Teoría Bioecológica.(AU)

Information-governing dynamics of attacker-defender interactions in youth rugby union.

Previous work on dynamics of interpersonal interactions in 1 vs. 1 sub-phases of basketball has identified changes in interpersonal distance between an attacker and defender as a potential control parameter for influencing organizational states of attacker-defender dyads. Other studies have reported the constraining effect of relative velocity between an attacker and defender in 1 vs. 1 dyads. To evaluate the relationship between these candidate control parameters, we compared the impact of both interpersonal distance and relative velocity on the pattern-forming dynamics of attacker-defender dyads in the sport of rugby union. Results revealed that when interpersonal distance achieved a critical value of less than 4 m, and relative velocity values increased or were maintained above 1 m x s(-1), a successful outcome (i.e. clean attempt) for an attacker was predicted. Alternatively, when values of relative velocity suddenly decreased below this threshold, at the same critical value of interpersonal distance, a successful outcome for the defender was predicted. Data demonstrated how the coupling of these two potential, nested control parameters moved the dyadic system to phase transitions, characterized as a try or a tackle. Observations suggested that relative velocity increased its influence on the organization of attacker-defender dyads in rugby union over time as spatial proximity to the try line increased.

Predicting short-term weight loss using four leading health behavior change theories.

BACKGROUND: This study was conceived to analyze how exercise and weight management psychosocial variables, derived from several health behavior change theories, predict weight change in a short-term intervention. The theories under analysis were the Social Cognitive Theory, the Transtheoretical Model, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and Self-Determination Theory. METHODS: Subjects were 142 overweight and obese women (BMI = 30.2 +/- 3.7 kg/m2; age = 38.3 +/- 5.8 y), participating in a 16-week University-based weight control program. Body weight and a comprehensive psychometric battery were assessed at baseline and at program's end. RESULTS: Weight decreased significantly (-3.6 +/- 3.4%, p < .001) but with great individual variability. Both exercise and weight management psychosocial variables improved during the intervention, with exercise-related variables showing the greatest effect sizes. Weight change was significantly predicted by each of the models under analysis, particularly those including self-efficacy. Bivariate and multivariate analyses results showed that change in variables related to weight management had a stronger predictive power than exercise-specific predictors and that change in weight management self-efficacy was the strongest individual correlate (p < .05). Among exercise predictors, with the exception of self-efficacy, importance/effort and intrinsic motivation towards exercise were the stronger predictors of weight reduction (p < .05). CONCLUSION: The present models were able to predict 20-30% of variance in short-term weight loss and changes in weight management self-efficacy accounted for a large share of the predictive power. As expected from previous studies, exercise variables were only moderately associated with short-term outcomes; they are expected to play a larger explanatory role in longer-term results.

Interpersonal dynamics in sport: the role of artificial neural networks and 3-D analysis.

In previous attempts to identify dynamical systems properties in patterns of play in team sports, only 2-D analysis methods have been used, implying that the plane of motion must be preselected and that movements out of the chosen plane are ignored. In the present study, we examined the usefulness of 3-D methods of analysis for establishing the presence of dynamical systems properties, such as phase transitions and symmetry-breaking processes in the team sport of rugby. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were employed to reconstruct the 3-D performance space in a typical one-versus-one subphase of rugby. Results confirm that ANNs are reliable tools for reconstructing a 3-D performance space and may be instrumental in identifying pattern formation in team sports generally.