Measuring autism with the ADOS-2 using a bifactor model.

The measurement of autism characteristics can be challenging due to variability of social impairments and restricted and repetitive behaviors or interests (RRBs). Psychometrically strong measures such as the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2) can improve our capacity for thorough autism assessment. The conceptualization of the ADOS-2 has been shaped by research exploring the structure of its items, which evaluate autism traits associated with social affect and RRBs. Continuously refining our understanding of these items and their relations to other characteristics, such as cognition, is crucial for more accurate autism assessment and diagnosis. This study used data from a sample of 188 school-age children with mostly average cognitive functioning referred for clinical autism evaluations to (1) test the dimensionality of the ADOS-2, Module 3 (appropriate for children with relatively higher verbal ability), across two sets of items (i.e., algorithm only, algorithm with three non-algorithm RRB items) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and (2) examine the relations of cognition to the dimensions tested in the ADOS-2. A bifactor model, featuring a general autism trait and two subfactors (RRB and Social Affect), provided superior fit for algorithm-only and algorithm with three non-algorithm items. Cognitive functioning was not significantly related to the general or specific factors in the model with only algorithm items. While the findings support the validity of the ADOS-2, it may not fully capture RRBs among children referred for autism. This study enhances our understanding of the ADOS-2, highlighting the utility of a bifactor model for characterizing its dimensionality, measuring autism traits with minimal cognitive influence, and identifying its limitations in assessing RRBs.

A mHealth application for the training of caregivers of children with developmental disorders in South Africa: rationale and initial piloting.

Background: Evidence-based mobile health (mHealth) interventions have been successful for an array of physical and mental health conditions. Children with developmental disorders (DD) often have secondary speech and language disorders. The lack of high-quality medical and educational services in low- and middle-income countries limits the opportunities for children with DD to succeed in life. South Africa currently offers limited access to education, social, and health services. Methods: Twelve caregivers of twelve children with DD between the ages of 3 and 6 years who already received monthly early childhood therapy participated in this study. A mHealth app, called Nna'Le'wena, a Setswana phrase meaning "Me and You", was designed, developed, installed, and tested on tablets. The app provided a systematic framework and guidance to the caregivers in order to use evidence-based communication interaction strategies with the children over a twelve-week period. The app could be used offline and provided audio instructions in English and Setswana, two dominant languages in South Africa. The app automatically generated log files and collected answers to weekly surveys. At the end of the study, caregivers were asked to evaluate the app by using relevant portions of the Mobile App Rating Scale (MARS). Results: Caregivers were able to successfully interact and use the app. The app was well-received and liked by the caregivers. Caregivers listened to the instructional audios in English and Setswana during the 12-week period. They were able to provide communication opportunities to their children during daily living activities, especially during play- and mealtime activities. Conclusions: The Nna'Le'wena app was successfully deployed and used by caregivers of children with DD. mHealth solutions can be effective and are relatively affordable solutions that can enhance health care and educational delivery in different settings, including in low-and middle-income countries with limited Internet capabilities.

Still having his say: David Yoder's legacy in AAC.

On February 2 2023, one of the guiding lights in the field of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for more than four decades, David E. Yoder, passed away at the age of 90. A voracious reader and gifted storyteller, David was particularly fond of a quote from George Bernard Shaw's Back to Methuselah, "You see things; and you say 'Why?' but I dream things that never were; and I say 'Why not?'" That vision led him to take on multiple leadership roles and influence the field of AAC in multiple ways. He played a pivotal role in establishing both the International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (ISAAC) and the United States Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (USSAAC). Additionally, he chaired the panel for the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR)'s inaugural Consensus Validation Conference on AAC, advocated for the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association to recognize AAC within the profession's scope of practice, and served as the first editor for the Augmentative and Alternative Communication journal. In this tribute, we describe David's diverse and unique contributions to improving the lives of people with communication challenges with a focus on some of his central insights and actions.

Properties of white matter tract diffusivity in children with developmental dyslexia and comorbid attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: Developmental dyslexia (DD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are highly comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Individuals with DD or ADHD have both been shown to have deficits in white matter tracts associated with reading and attentional control networks. However, white matter diffusivity in individuals comorbid with both DD and ADHD (DD + ADHD) has not been specifically explored. METHODS: Participants were 3rd and 4th graders (age range = 7 to 11 years; SD = 0.69) from three diagnostic groups ((DD (n = 40), DD + ADHD (n = 22), and typical developing (TD) (n = 20)). Behavioral measures of reading and attention alongside measures of white matter diffusivity were collected for all participants. RESULTS: DD + ADHD and TD groups differed in mean fractional anisotropy (FA) for the left and right Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus (SLF)-Parietal Terminations and SLF-Temporal Terminations. Mean FA for the DD group across these SLF tracts fell between the lower DD + ADHD and higher TD averages. No differences in mean diffusivity nor significant brain-behavior relations were found. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that WM diffusivity in the SLF increases along a continuum across DD + ADHD, DD, and TD.

Parent-implemented augmented communication intervention and young children with Down syndrome: an exploratory report.

Introduction: Young children with Down syndrome (DS) present with speech and language impairments very early in childhood. Historically, early language intervention for children with DS included manual signs, though recently there has been an interest in the use of speech-generating devices (SGDs). This paper examines the language and communication performance of young children with DS who participated in parent-implemented communication interventions that included SGDs. Specifically, we compared the functional vocabulary usage and communication interaction skills of children with DS who received augmented communication interventions (AC) that included an SGD with those children with DS who received spoken communication intervention (SC). Methods: Twenty-nine children with DS participated in this secondary data analysis. These children were part of one of two longitudinal RCT studies investigating the effectiveness of parent-implemented augmented communication interventions in a larger sample of 109 children with severe communication and language impairments. Results: There were significant differences between children with DS in the AC and SC groups in terms of the number and proportion of functional vocabulary targets used and the total vocabulary targets provided during the intervention at sessions 18 (lab)and 24 (home). Discussion: Overall, the AC interventions provided the children with a way to communicate via an SGD with visual-graphic symbols and speech output, while the children in the SC intervention were focused on producing spoken words. The AC interventions did not hinder the children's spoken vocabulary development. Augmented communication intervention can facilitate the communication abilities of young children with DS as they are emerging spoken communicators.

Profiles of Children With Cortical Visual Impairment Who Use Augmentative and Alternative Communication: A Retrospective Examination.

PURPOSE: Cortical visual impairment (CVI) is the most common cause of visual impairment in children today and can impact the outcomes of children who rely on augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). This study provides baseline data of 13 children with CVI who used AAC during their first year of participation in an integrated CVI program. One purpose was to describe similarities and differences in the student's demographic, functional vision, communication, and educational profiles. A second purpose was to examine differences in students described with different communicator profiles. METHOD: Archived student records were de-identified and reviewed using a systematic coding scheme. Two researchers independently reviewed and coded all student records. Reliability was established. Measures included CVI Range scores; supports for positioning, mobility, vision, and writing; AAC systems, including modes, access methods, and language representation; communicative competence; self-determination; literacy; and mathematics. RESULTS: The study yielded a rich description of similarities and differences among students at baseline and led to careful consideration of differences among the participants with emergent communicator and context-dependent communicator profiles. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, limited evidence exists that informs practice regarding AAC assessment and intervention for children with CVI. This article describes a small sample of children with CVI who use AAC. Results underscore the need for educators and practitioners to ensure that vision functioning in students with CVI is evaluated carefully and regularly when conducting AAC assessment and intervention and formulating communication or education goals. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.21357684.

It's Never Too Late: Debunking Myths About Communication and Adults With Severe Disabilities.

Communication infuses all dimensions and stages of life, influencing one's self-determination and quality of life. A number of empirical studies have demonstrated that people with severe disabilities continue to develop communication and language skills well into their adult years and make measurable gains when provided with appropriate communication services and supports. Several myths about age, ability, and experiences limit opportunities for persons with severe disabilities. In this paper, we confront and address these myths.

Language comprehension in toddlers with significant developmental delays: An IRT approach.

PURPOSE: Language comprehension, or the ability to understand spoken language, is critical to a variety of child outcomes. Effective early intervention relies on valid, reliable language comprehension assessment. The purpose of this study was to explore language comprehension in a sample of toddlers with significant developmental delays associated with varied medical conditions. METHOD: We investigated language comprehension in a sample of 112 toddlers by applying Item Response Theory (IRT) methods to two measures; one standardized and one flexible. RESULTS: Data from a standardized measure fit the unidimensional model, whereas the flexible measure did not. The overall pattern of results suggested that items related to early social/contextual comprehension are distinct from linguistic comprehension items. CONCLUSION: Our findings inform clinical practice by underscoring the importance of comprehensive assessment of language comprehension and considering strengths and weaknesses across social/contextual and linguistic comprehension among toddlers with developmental delays.

Patterns of Cognition, Communication, and Adaptive Behavior in Children With Developmental Disabilities.

Young children with developmental disabilities (DD) exhibit a range of strengths and weaknesses in cognitive, language, and adaptive skills. Identifying individual patterns of abilities across these domains is important for informing interventions. This study examines how 129 toddlers with significant developmental delays and less than 10 spoken words perform across different developmental domains and assessment methods (i.e., caregiver report and clinician-administered tests). Children exhibited statistically and clinically meaningful strengths and weaknesses across developmental domains, which may have important implications for differential interventions. Caregiver-reported and clinician-rated measures of cognition, language and adaptive functioning were highly related. However, the relation between caregiver report and clinician ratings was weaker for a subgroup of children with relatively more limited expressive language compared to other children in the sample.

Spoken Vocabulary Outcomes of Toddlers With Developmental Delay After Parent-Implemented Augmented Language Intervention.

Purpose Early intervention using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) supports both receptive and expressive language skills. However, many parents and clinicians still worry that augmented language intervention might delay or impair speech development. This study aimed to (a) characterize and analyze the speech sound development of toddlers with developmental delay who participated in a parent-implemented language intervention; (b) examine the accuracy of speech sounds among toddlers who participated in an augmented language intervention using speech-generating devices and toddlers who participated in a traditional, spoken language intervention; and (c) examine the relationship between baseline factors (i.e., receptive and expressive language skills, vocal imitation, and number of unintelligible utterances) and the number of spoken target vocabulary words after intervention. Method This study used extant data from two randomized control trials of parent-implemented language interventions using AAC or spoken language. Out of 109 children who completed the intervention, 45 children produced spoken target vocabulary words at the end of the intervention. We identified and phonetically transcribed spoken target vocabulary words for each child and then classified them based on Shriberg and Kwiatkowski's (1982) developmental sound classes. Results Children's speech sound accuracy was not significantly different across intervention groups. Overall, children who produced more words had more speech sound errors and higher baseline language scores. Intervention group and baseline receptive and expressive language skills significantly predicted the number of spoken target vocabulary words produced at the end of intervention. Conclusions Participation in AAC intervention resulted in significantly more spoken target vocabulary words and no statistically significant differences in speech sound errors when compared to children who received spoken language intervention without AAC. Results support using AAC interventions for very young children without the fear that it will delay speech or spoken language development. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14265365.

Language Differentiation Using Augmentative and Alternative Communication: An Investigation of Spanish-English Bilingual Children With and Without Language Impairments.

Purpose Children with severe speech and language impairments growing up in dual language environments may communicate in more than one language using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). This study investigated predictors of bilingual children's ability to differentiate between Spanish and English using an AAC iPad app during a cued language-switching task and examined whether switching between languages using AAC incurred a cognitive cost. Method Participants were 58 Spanish-English bilingual children ages 4;0-6;11 (years;months; 23 with language impairments). Children received standardized language and cognitive assessments and completed an experimental language-switching task in which they were asked to differentiate between languages using an AAC iPad app containing English and Spanish vocabulary layouts paired with voice output. Results Results of a binary logistic regression indicated that, when controlling for age, processing speed significantly predicted whether children were classified as high or low performers on the experimental task. Nonparametric tests indicated that switching between languages did not incur a cognitive cost as evidenced by similar response times on trials where participants were required to switch between languages compared to trials where they did not switch. Conclusion This study contributes to the understanding of how young bilingual children with and without language impairments conceptualize and discriminate between languages represented in a visual-graphic modality paired with speech output. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13289330.

Growing up with AAC in the digital age: a longitudinal profile of communication across contexts from toddler to teen.

Smart technology (e.g., smartphones, smartwatches, tablets) and the age of information have transformed our society and changed the lives of individuals who rely on assistive technology. This study provides a detailed description of an adolescent growing up in the digital age using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). It documents the participant's development across language, cognitive, and social domains from ages 2- to 15-years-old, and explores how changes in AAC technology and contextual factors contributed to broad-based outcomes associated with AAC use. In general, results from standardized assessments show growth or stability across domains from ages 2-15. Data from a parent interview provides a narrative description of AAC device use, AAC interventions, and school and family environments. Despite communicative challenges, the participant leveraged advances in AAC technology to develop communicative competence and creatively used his smart devices and the Internet to interact with friends both online and in person.

Supporting Early Communication Skills of Children with Developmental Disorders in South Africa: Caregiver and Clinician Perspectives about Mobile Health Applications.

Using a mobile health application (i.e. app) to empower primary caregivers of young children with developmental disorders in low- and middle-income countries is opening up new avenues for early childhood intervention. Thirteen caregivers and ten speech-language pathologists participated in three focus groups to explore their perspectives about the potential benefits and suitability of a mobile health app as part of intervention, its features, the likelihood of using and recommending it, as well as potential pitfalls to be avoided. Both participant groups were generally positive, although there was little overlap between their responses. Caregivers generally focused on increased knowledge and skills (of all family members), as well as on empowerment and reduced costs. Speech-language pathologists on the other hand focused on how current service delivery would be enriched by increasing the dosage of therapy and enhancing parental cooperation. They also expected that the reach of service delivery would be expanded as more children and caregivers could potentially benefit. Although technology (i.e. mobile apps) could open up new possibilities for service delivery in this population, the perspectives of all stakeholder groups should be considered to ensure successful adoption of such technologies.

Intervention focus moderates the association between initial receptive language and language outcomes for toddlers with developmental delay.

This ex-post facto study reanalyzed data from Romski et al. to examine whether intervention focus moderated the relationship between pre-intervention standardized measures of receptive language and post-intervention standardized measures of receptive and expressive language age and observations of expressive target vocabulary size. In all, 62 toddlers with developmental delay were randomly assigned to augmented communication-input (AC-I), augmented communication-output (AC-O), or spoken communication (SC) interventions. AC-I provided augmented language input via spoken language and a speech-generating device (SGD); AC-O encouraged the production of augmented output via an SGD; and SC provided spoken input and encouraged spoken output without using an SGD. Intervention focus moderated the impact of initial receptive language on expressive language age and expressive target vocabulary size. Participants in AC-I, when compared to those in the other two interventions, had a significantly stronger relationship between initial receptive language and post-intervention expressive language age. For expressive target vocabulary size, participants in AC-O showed a strong relationship and those in AC-I a slightly weaker relationship between initial receptive language and expressive target vocabulary size; no significant relationship was found in the SC group. Results emphasize that different interventions may have distinct outcomes for children with higher or lower initial receptive language.

Executive Functioning and Narrative Language in Children With Dyslexia.

Purpose Children with dyslexia often struggle with nonphonological aspects of language and executive functioning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of executive functioning on language abilities at both structural (e.g., grammar in sentences) and functional (e.g., narrative) levels in 92 third- and 4th-grade students with dyslexia. Additionally, we asked if working memory updating contributed a significant amount of variance in narrative language ability beyond what would be expected by students' structural language skills alone. Method Students' language and executive functioning skills were evaluated using a range of language and cognitive measures including the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition (Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition (Dunn & Dunn, 2007), the Test of Narrative Language (Gillam & Pearson, 2004), the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function Scale (Kaplan, Kramer, & Delis, 2001), and the Corsi Block-Tapping Test (WISC-IV Integrated; Kaplan, Fein, Kramer, Delis, & Morris, 2004). Results Low correlations between the language measures suggested that each of these assessments captures a unique element of language ability for children with dyslexia. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that working memory updating accounted for a significant amount of unique variance in oral narrative production beyond what would be expected by structural language ability. Conclusions The range of performance found across language measures suggests that it may be important to include a variety of language measures assessing both structural and functional language skills when evaluating children with dyslexia. Including cognitive measures of executive functioning may also be key to determine if deficits in working memory updating are contributing to functional expressive language difficulties.

Visual-graphic symbol acquisition in school age children with developmental and language delays.

Augmented language systems have become both an integral component of communication intervention programs for children with severe communicative impairments and spurred research on their language and communication development. This study examined intrinsic and extrinsic factors that may influence the language development process for children with developmental disabilities, by exploring the relationship between varying degrees of symbol arbitrariness and extant speech comprehension skills in the discrimination, learning, and use of symbols for communication. For the study, 13 school-aged participants (M = 8.24 [years; months]), with both developmental and language delays, were provided experience with iconic Blissymbols and an arbitrary symbol set of lexigrams via observational computerized experience sessions. There was a modest difference in their ability to learn arbitrary versus iconic symbols. There were no differences if the vocabulary item was unknown prior to the symbol learning experience. These findings suggest that iconicity of a symbol may not be a critical factor in learning a symbol-referent relationship if a target referent is not yet known in comprehension.

The complexities of AAC intervention research: emerging trends to consider.

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is always about intervening and the subsequent effects of the interventions (e.g., on the AAC user, family perspectives, educational outcomes, and vocational outcomes). AAC intervention research is about generating new knowledge by studying some aspect of AAC delivery in a planned manner so that it can be replicated and then translated into clinical/educational practice. This commentary on AAC intervention research highlights the complexities inherent in this type of research and the range of components that contribute to it, and reflects on emerging trends that we must consider as we continue to develop and enhance intervention research. Conducting AAC intervention research is a commitment to understanding how change occurs when an intervention is delivered and its broader impact on the field and the people who use AAC.

Relationship of Mothers' Mental and Physical Health to Characteristics of Mothers and Their Children With Developmental Disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Although empirical evidence shows that mothers of children with developmental disabilities (DDs) are at risk for poor mental and physical health, the relative contribution of maternal and child characteristics, including sleep quality, remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to compare select maternal (sleep quality, caregiving stress, and other sociodemographic variables) and child characteristics (sleep and behavior problems) between mothers with worse mental and physical health and those with better mental and physical health and to determine the contribution of selected characteristics on mental and physical health in mothers of school-age children (ages 6-12 years) with DDs. METHODS: This cross-sectional, correlational study included a convenience sample of 40 mothers of children with DDs. Mothers completed a set of questionnaires, including the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Zarit Burden Interview, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, and the 36-Item, Short-Form Health Survey Version 2. RESULTS: Results from bivariate logistic regression modeling showed that mothers with high depressive symptoms and worse physical health, as compared to mothers with low depressive symptoms and better physical health, reported significantly higher caregiving stress, poor sleep quality, and more chronic health conditions and more behavior and sleep problems in children with DDs. A multivariable logistic regression model showed mother's sleep quality was significantly associated with increased risk of high levels of depression (OR = 1.934, 95% CI [1.106, 3.385], p = .021) and increased risk of worse physical health (OR = 1.920, 95% CI [1.086, 3.393], p = .025). DISCUSSION: Sleep health assessment may be beneficial when providing care to families of children with DDs.