Antipsychotic drugs induce vascular defects in hematopoietic organs.

Antipsychotic agents are clinically utilized to treat schizophrenia and other mental disorders. These drugs induce neurological and metabolic side effects, but their influence on blood vessels remains largely unknown. Here, we show that haloperidol, one of the most frequently prescribed antipsychotic agents, induces vascular defects in bone marrow. Acute haloperidol treatment results in vascular dilation that is specific to hematopoietic organs. This vessel dilation is associated with disruption of hematopoiesis and hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs), both of which are reversible after haloperidol withdrawal. Mechanistically, haloperidol treatment blocked the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) from HSPCs. Genetic blockade of VEGF-A secretion from hematopoietic cells or inhibition of VEGFR2 in endothelial cells result in similar vessel dilation in bone marrow during regeneration after irradiation and transplantation. Conversely, VEGF-A gain of function rescues the bone marrow vascular defects induced by haloperidol treatment and irradiation. Our work reveals an unknown effect of antipsychotic agents on the vasculature and hematopoiesis with potential implications for drug application in clinic.

Protective effect of arctigenin on ethanol-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells.

As a neurotropic substance, ethanol can damage nerve cells through an increase in the production of free radicals, interference of neurotrophic factor signaling pathways, activation of endogenous apoptotic signals and other molecular mechanisms. Previous studies have revealed that a number of natural drugs extracted from plants offer protection of nerve cells from damage. Among these, arctigenin (ATG) is a lignine extracted from Arctium lappa (L.), which has been found to exert a neuroprotective effect on scopolamine­induced memory deficits in mice with Alzheimer's disease and glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in primary neurons. As a result, it may offer beneficial effects on ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. However, the effects of ATG on ethanol­induced nerve damage remain to be elucidated. To address this issue, the present study used rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells to investigate the neuroprotective effects of ATG on ethanol-induced cell damage by performing an MTT reduction assay, cell cycle analysis, Hoechst33342/propidium iodide fluorescence staining and flow cytometry to examine apoptosis. The results showed that 10 µM ATG effectively promoted the proliferation of damaged cells, and increased the distribution ratio of the cells at the G2/M and S phases (P<0.05). In addition, the apoptosis and necrosis of the PC12 cells were significantly decreased following treatment with ATG. Therefore, it was concluded that 10 µM ATG had a protective effect on ethanol­induced injury in PC12 cells.

Beneficial effects of chlorogenic acid on alcohol-induced damage in PC12 cells.

As one of the most commonly abused psychotropic substances, ethanol exposure has deleterious effects on the central nervous system (CNS). The most detrimental results of ethanol exposure during development are the loss of neurons in brain regions such as the hippocampus and neocortex, which may be related to the apoptosis and necrosis mediated by oxidative stress. Recent studies indicated that a number of natural drugs from plants play an important role in protection of nerve cells from damage. Among these, it has been reported that chlorogenic acid (CA) has neuroprotective effects against oxidative stress. Thus, it may play some beneficial effects on ethanol-induced neurotoxicity. However, the effects of CA on ethanol-induced nerve damage remain unclear. In order to investigate the protective effects of CA on alcohol-induced apoptosis in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, in the present study, cell viability and the optimal dosage of CA were first quantified by MTT assay. Then, the cell apoptosis and cell cycle were respectively investigated by Hoechst 33258 staining and flow cytometer (FCM). To further clarify the possible mechanism, followed with the test of mitochondria transmembrane potential with Rhodamine 123 (Rho 123) staining, the expression of Bcl-2, Capase-3 and growth associated protein-43 (GAP-43) were analyzed by immunofluorescence assay separately. The results showed that treatment with 500 mM alcohol decreased the cell viability and then significantly induced apoptosis in PC12 cells. However, when pretreated with different concentrations of CA (1, 5, 10, 50 µM), cell viability increased in different degree. Comparatively, CA with the concentration of 10 µM most effectively promoted the proliferation of damaged cells, increased the distribution ratio of the cells at the G2/M and S phases, and enhanced mitochondria transmembrane potential. This appears to be in agreement with up-regulation of the expression of Bcl-2 and GAP-43, and down-regulation of the expression of Capsae-3. Taken together, CA can increase cell viability and promote cell differentiation by preventing alcohol-induced cell from apoptosis. The mechanism may be related to the enhancement of the expression of GAP-43 and the inhibition of mitochondrial apoptotic pathway including promotion of mitochondria transmembrane potential, up-regulation of the expression of Bcl-2, and down-regulation of the expression of Capsae-3.

Experimental and Clinical Advances in Immunotherapy Strategies for Spinal Cord Injury Target on MAIs and Their Receptors.

In the injured adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS), the failure of axonal regeneration is thought to be attributed, at least in part, to various myelin-associated inhibitors (MAIs), such as Nogo, myelinassociated glycoprotein (MAG), and oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein (OMgp) around the damaged site. Interestingly, these three structurally different inhibitors share two common receptors, Nogo-66 receptor (NgR) and paired immunoglobulin-like receptor B (PirB), and transduce the inhibitory signal into neurons via their complex combinant and co-receptors, such as p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), Nogo receptor-interacting protein 1 (LINGO-1), and TROY. Accordingly, targeting of the whole myelin or just portions by immunization has been proved to be neuroprotective and is able to promote regeneration in the injured spinal cords. In the past few years, vaccine approaches were initially achieved and could induce the production of antibodies against inhibitors in myelin to block the inhibitory effects and promote functional recovery in spinal cord injury (SCI) models by immunizing with MAIs, such as purified myelin, spinal cord homogenates, or their receptors with the concept of protective autoimmunity formulated. However, for safety consideration, further work is necessary before the immunotherapy strategies can be adopted to treat human injured spinal cords.

Update on the role of p75NTR in neurological disorders: A novel therapeutic target.

As a low-affinity neurotrophins receptor, p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) is a transmembrane receptor involved in a diverse array of cellular responses, including apoptosis, survival, neurite outgrowth, migration, and cell cycle arrest, which may be related to some neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Parkinson's disease (PD). Indeed, a series of studies during the last decade has demonstrated that the p75NTR signaling plays key roles in most aspects of the neurological disorder diseases. In spite of the limited information available, this review still tried to summary the relationship between p75NTR and diverse neurological disorder diseases, and tried to further clarify the possible mechanism, which may provide a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Immunotherapy strategies for spinal cord injury.

Regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) of adult mammalian after traumatic injury is limited, which often causes permanent functional motor and sensory loss. After spinal cord injury (SCI), the lack of regeneration is mainly attributed to the presence of a hostile microenvironment, glial scarring, and cavitation. Besides, inflammation has also been proved to play a crucial role in secondary degeneration following SCI. The more prominent treatment strategies in experimental models focus mainly on drugs and cell therapies, however, only a few strategies applied in clinical studies and therapies still have only limited effects on the repair of SCI. Recently, the interests in immunotherapy strategies for CNS are increasing in number and breadth. Immunotherapy strategies have made good progresses in treating many CNS degenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), stroke, and multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the strategies begin to be considered to the treatment of SCI and other neurological disorders in recent years. Besides anti-inflamatory therapy, immunization with protein vaccines and DNA vaccines has emerged as a novel therapy strategy because of the simplicity of preparation and application. An inflammatory response followed by spinal cord injury, and is controled by specific signaling molecules, such as some cytokines playing a crucial role. As a result, appropriate immunoregulation, the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-inflammatory cytokines may be an effective therapy strategy for earlier injury of spinal cord. In addition, myelinassociated inhibitors (MAIs) in the injured spinal cord, such as Nogo, myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) and oligodendrocyte- myelin glycoprotein (OMgp) are known to prevent axonal regeneration through their co-receptors, and to trigger demyelinating autoimmunity through T cell-mediated harmful autoimmune response. The antagonism of the MAIs through vaccinating with protein or DNA vaccines targeting Nogo, MAG, OMgp, and their co-receptors, may be an effective strategy for the treatment of SCI. However, immunotherapy such as anti-inflammtory therapy or vaccine targeting MAIs or their receptors, accompanied with the potential in risking autoimmune diseases. As a result, in order to optimize the anti-inflammtory therapy and design of protein or DNA vaccines for their use in the future clinical application, we need to further understand the possible mechanisms of neuroprotective immunity. This review presents recent advances in the development of immunotherapy strategies for the treatment of axonal degeneration and demyelination, and improvement of motor function after SCI.

Selection of human p75NTR tag SNPs and its biological significance for clinical association studies.

To select tag single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within and around human p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) gene in Chinese Han population, the sequence involving p75NTR gene as well as the upstream and downstream of the gene was identified according to the data from National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) GenBank database, and the SNP genotype data involving 63 SNPs in the regions were obtained from Chinese Han Beijing (CHB) population of HapMap database. Then, Haploview (version 4.2) was used to calculate linkage disequilibrium (LD) statistics for the selected 32 common SNPs with a minor allele frequence (MAF) more than 0.05. Haplotype blocks were constructed throughout the p75NTR gene according to the upper and the lower 95% confidence bound of D' value, and the tag SNPs were selected based on the r2 and LOD values between SNPs as well as the results of bioinformatics analysis. The results indicated that five haplotype blocks were constructed within and around p75NTR gene and 12 tag SNPs including rs2537710, rs603769, rs614455, rs2537706, rs534561, rs2072445, rs2072446, rs7219709, rs734194, rs741071, rs741073 and rs2671641 were selected to represent the other 51 SNPs in p75NTR gene. Therefore, the 12 selected SNPs may act as tag SNPs for the entire p75NTR gene in Chinese Han population, which will provide an effective way to select tag SNPs in a whole gene, and its biological significance is to further guide the clinical association studies between the candidate gene and disease susceptibility.

Protective effects and anti-apoptotic role of nerve growth factor on spinal cord neurons in sciatic nerve-injured rats.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to demonstrate a dependence of spinal cord motoneurons on the communication with their targets, sciatic nerves, and investigate whether the effects of nerve growth factor (NGF) on the spinal cord neuron apoptosis and surviving through the regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB) in Schwann cells (SCs) in sciatic nerve injured rats. METHODS: Ninety healthy adult Sprague-Dawley rats were divided randomly into normal control group, crushing group, and NGF-intervened group. When sciatic nerve crushed 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days, the expression of NF-kappaB in SCs and the apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 and Caspase-3 in spinal cord were examined by immunohistochemistry staining, Western blot analysis, and immunofluorescence double-labeling method, the motor neuron apoptosis were investigated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL), and the surviving neurons were tested by toluidine blue (Nissl) staining, respectively. All the data were further analyzed with SPSS10·0 application software. RESULTS: The level of the expression of NF-kappaB in crushing group enhanced at 1 day after crushing, reached peak at 3 days, and reduced at least until 21 days, which was markedly higher than that in the normal control group. The expression of NF-kappaB in NGF-intervened group showed the same changes, reached peak at 7 days, and reduced until 21 days. However, when compared with crushing group, the expression of NF-kappaB in NGF-intervened group was down-regulated significantly until 3 days after injury, and up-regulated obviously with time going on. The same trend was observed in the time course on motor neuron apoptosis in crushing group and NGF-intervened group after sciatic nerves injury, while the reversing change was found in the surviving neurons. Moreover, the kinetics of Bcl-2 expression in spinal cord was consistent with that of NF-kappaB, while reversing with that of Caspase-3. CONCLUSION: The findings revealed that NGF may play a pivotal role of anti-apoptosis in spinal cord neurons through retrograde transport of NF-kappaB in SCs following sciatic nerve injury in rats.