Histamine stimulates human microglia to alter cellular prion protein expression via the HRH2 histamine receptor.

Although the cellular prion protein (PrPC) has been evolutionarily conserved, the role of this protein remains elusive. Recent evidence indicates that PrPC may be involved in neuroinflammation and the immune response in the brain, and its expression may be modified via various mechanisms. Histamine is a proinflammatory mediator and neurotransmitter that stimulates numerous cells via interactions with histamine receptors 1-4 (HRH1-4). Since microglia are the innate immune cells of the central nervous system, we hypothesized that histamine-induced stimulation regulates the expression of PrPC in human-derived microglia. The human microglial clone 3 (HMC3) cell line was treated with histamine, and intracellular calcium levels were measured via a calcium flux assay. Cytokine production was monitored by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Western blotting and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction were used to determine protein and gene expression of HRH1-4. Flow cytometry and western blotting were used to measure PrPC expression levels. Fluorescence microscopy was used to examine Iba-1 and PrPC localization. HMC3 cells stimulated by histamine exhibited increased intracellular calcium levels and increased release of IL-6 and IL-8, while also modifying PrPC localization. HMC3 stimulated with histamine for 6 and 24 hours exhibited increased surface PrPC expression. Specifically, we found that stimulation of the HRH2 receptor was responsible for changes in surface PrPC. Histamine-induced increases in surface PrPC were attenuated following inhibition of the HRH2 receptor via the HRH2 antagonist ranitidine. These changes were unique to HRH2 activation, as stimulation of HRH1, HRH3, or HRH4 did not alter surface PrPC. Prolonged stimulation of HMC3 decreased PrPC expression following 48 and 72 hours of histamine stimulation. HMC3 cells can be stimulated by histamine to undergo intracellular calcium influx. Surface expression levels of PrPC on HMC3 cells are altered by histamine exposure, primarily mediated by HRH2. While histamine exposure also increases release of IL-6 and IL-8 in these cells, this cytokine release is not fully dependent on PrPC levels, as IL-6 release is only partially reduced and IL-8 release is unchanged under the conditions of HRH2 blockade that prevent PrPC changes. Overall, this suggests that PrPC may play a role in modulating microglial responses.

Rational design of structure-based vaccines targeting misfolded alpha-synuclein conformers of Parkinson's disease and related disorders.

Synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), are neurodegenerative disorders caused by the accumulation of misfolded alpha-synuclein protein. Developing effective vaccines against synucleinopathies is challenging due to the difficulty of stimulating an immune-specific response against alpha-synuclein without causing harmful autoimmune reactions, selectively targeting only pathological forms of alpha-synuclein. Previous attempts using linear peptides and epitopes without control of the antigen structure failed in clinical trials. The immune system was unable to distinguish between native alpha-synuclein and its amyloid form. The prion domain of the fungal HET-s protein was selected as a scaffold to introduce select epitopes from the surface of alpha-synuclein fibrils. Four vaccine candidates were generated by introducing specific amino acid substitutions onto the surface of the scaffold protein. The approach successfully mimicked the stacking of the parallel in-register beta-sheet structure seen in alpha-synuclein fibrils. All vaccine candidates induced substantial levels of IgG antibodies that recognized pathological alpha-synuclein fibrils derived from a synucleinopathy mouse model. Furthermore, the antisera recognized pathological alpha-synuclein aggregates in brain lysates from patients who died from DLB, MSA, or PD, but did not recognize linear alpha-synuclein peptides. Our approach, based on the rational design of vaccines using the structure of alpha-synuclein amyloid fibrils and strict control over the exposed antigen structure used for immunization, as well as the ability to mimic aggregated alpha-synuclein, provides a promising avenue toward developing effective vaccines against alpha-synuclein fibrils.

PrP is cleaved from the surface of mast cells by ADAM10 and proteases released during degranulation.

While several functions of the endogenous prion protein have been studied, the homeostatic function of prion protein is still debated. Notably, prion protein is highly expressed on mast cells, granular immune cells that regulate inflammation. When activated, mast cells shed prion protein, although the mechanism and consequences of this are not yet understood. First, we tested several mast cell lines and found that, while prion protein was almost always present, the total amount differed greatly. Activation of mast cells induced a cleavage of the N-terminal region of prion protein, and this was reduced by protease inhibitors. Exogenous mast cell proteases caused a similar loss of the prion protein N-terminus. Additionally, mast cells shed prion protein in an ADAM10-dependent fashion, even in the absence of activation. Our results suggest that prion protein is cleaved from resting mast cells by ADAM10 and from activated mast cells by mast cell proteases. Prion protein also appears to affect mast cell function, as Prnp-/- bone marrow-derived mast cells showed lower levels of degranulation and cytokine release, as well as lower levels of both FcεRI and CD117. Finally, we sought to provide clinical relevance by measuring the levels of prion protein in bodily fluids of asthmatic patients, a disease that involves the activation of mast cells. We found an N-terminal fragment of prion protein could be detected in human sputum and serum, and the amount of this prion protein fragment was decreased in the serum of patients with asthma.

Alzheimer's disease associated isoforms of human CD33 distinctively modulate microglial cell responses in 5XFAD mice.

Microglia play diverse pathophysiological roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD), with genetic susceptibility factors skewing microglial cell function to influence AD risk. CD33 is an immunomodulatory receptor associated with AD susceptibility through a single nucleotide polymorphism that modulates mRNA splicing, skewing protein expression from a long protein isoform (CD33M) to a short isoform (CD33m). Understanding how human CD33 isoforms differentially impact microglial cell function in vivo has been challenging due to functional divergence of CD33 between mice and humans. We address this challenge by studying transgenic mice expressing either of the human CD33 isoforms crossed with the 5XFAD mouse model of amyloidosis and find that human CD33 isoforms have opposing effects on the response of microglia to amyloid-ß (Aß) deposition. Mice expressing CD33M have increased Aß levels, more diffuse plaques, fewer disease-associated microglia, and more dystrophic neurites compared to 5XFAD control mice. Conversely, CD33m promotes plaque compaction and microglia-plaque contacts, and minimizes neuritic plaque pathology, highlighting an AD protective role for this isoform. Protective phenotypes driven by CD33m are detected at an earlier timepoint compared to the more aggressive pathology in CD33M mice that appears at a later timepoint, suggesting that CD33m has a more prominent impact on microglia cell function at earlier stages of disease progression. In addition to divergent roles in modulating phagocytosis, scRNAseq and proteomics analyses demonstrate that CD33m+ microglia upregulate nestin, an intermediate filament involved in cell migration, at plaque contact sites. Overall, our work provides new functional insights into how CD33, as a top genetic susceptibility factor for AD, modulates microglial cell function.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence towards Fibronectin's Protective Effects against Prion Infection.

A distinctive signature of the prion diseases is the accumulation of the pathogenic isoform of the prion protein, PrPSc, in the central nervous system of prion-affected humans and animals. PrPSc is also found in peripheral tissues, raising concerns about the potential transmission of pathogenic prions through human food supplies and posing a significant risk to public health. Although muscle tissues are considered to contain levels of low prion infectivity, it has been shown that myotubes in culture efficiently propagate PrPSc. Given the high consumption of muscle tissue, it is important to understand what factors could influence the establishment of a prion infection in muscle tissue. Here we used in vitro myotube cultures, differentiated from the C2C12 myoblast cell line (dC2C12), to identify factors affecting prion replication. A range of experimental conditions revealed that PrPSc is tightly associated with proteins found in the systemic extracellular matrix, mostly fibronectin (FN). The interaction of PrPSc with FN decreased prion infectivity, as determined by standard scrapie cell assay. Interestingly, the prion-resistant reserve cells in dC2C12 cultures displayed a FN-rich extracellular matrix while the prion-susceptible myotubes expressed FN at a low level. In agreement with the in vitro results, immunohistopathological analyses of tissues from sheep infected with natural scrapie demonstrated a prion susceptibility phenotype linked to an extracellular matrix with undetectable levels of FN. Conversely, PrPSc deposits were not observed in tissues expressing FN. These data indicate that extracellular FN may act as a natural barrier against prion replication and that the extracellular matrix composition may be a crucial feature determining prion tropism in different tissues.

Mast Cell Proteases Cleave Prion Proteins and a Recombinant Ig against PrP Can Activate Human Mast Cells.

IgE Abs, best known for their role in allergic reactions, have only rarely been used in immunotherapies. Nevertheless, they offer a potential alternative to the more commonly used IgGs. The affinity of IgE Ag binding influences the type of response from mast cells, so any immunotherapies using IgEs must balance Ag affinity with desired therapeutic effect. One potential way to harness differential binding affinities of IgE is in protein aggregation diseases, where low-affinity binding of endogenous proteins is preferred, but enhanced binding of clusters of disease-associated aggregated proteins could target responses to the sites of disease. For this reason, we sought to create a low-affinity IgE against the prion protein (PrP), which exists in an endogenous monomeric state but can misfold into aggregated states during the development of prion disease. First, we determined that mast cell proteases tryptase and cathepsin G were capable of degrading PrP. Then we engineered a recombinant IgE Ab directed against PrP from the V region of a PrP-specific IgG and tested its activation of the human mast cell line LAD2. The αPrP IgE bound LAD2 through Fc receptors. Crosslinking receptor-bound αPrP IgE activated SYK and ERK phosphorylation, caused Fc receptor internalization, and resulted in degranulation. This work shows that a recombinant αPrP IgE can activate LAD2 cells to release enzymes that can degrade PrP, suggesting that IgE may be useful in targeting diseases that involve protein aggregation.

Probing the origin of prion protein misfolding via reconstruction of ancestral proteins.

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative diseases caused by pathogenic misfolding of the prion protein, PrP. They are transmissible between hosts, and sometimes between different species, as with transmission of bovine spongiform encephalopathy to humans. Although PrP is found in a wide range of vertebrates, prion diseases are seen only in certain mammals, suggesting that infectious misfolding was a recent evolutionary development. To explore when PrP acquired the ability to misfold infectiously, we reconstructed the sequences of ancestral versions of PrP from the last common primate, primate-rodent, artiodactyl, placental, bird, and amniote. Recombinant ancestral PrPs were then tested for their ability to form ß-sheet aggregates, either spontaneously or when seeded with infectious prion strains from human, cervid, or rodent species. The ability to aggregate developed after the oldest ancestor (last common amniote), and aggregation capabilities diverged along evolutionary pathways consistent with modern-day susceptibilities. Ancestral bird PrP could not be seeded with modern-day prions, just as modern-day birds are resistant to prion disease. Computational modeling of structures suggested that differences in helix 2 could account for the resistance of ancestral bird PrP to seeding. Interestingly, ancestral primate PrP could be converted by all prion seeds, including both human and cervid prions, raising the possibility that species descended from an ancestral primate have retained the susceptibility to conversion by cervid prions. More generally, the results suggest that susceptibility to prion disease emerged prior to ~100 million years ago, with placental mammals possibly being generally susceptible to disease.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in pregnancy: the use of modified RT-QuIC to determine infectivity in placental tissues.

Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (sCJD) rarely affects women of childbearing age. There is currently no evidence of vertical transmission. Given the biosafety implications of performing Caesarean sections (C-section) in these patients, we used sensitive real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assays to test for the infectious prion protein (PrPSc) in products of gestation. A 35-year-old woman with sCJD presented in her 10th gestational week with an eight month history of progressive cognitive impairment. During C-section, amniotic fluid, cord blood and placental tissue were collected and analysed using RT-QuIC protocols adapted for use with these tissues. The patient's diagnosis of sCJD, MM2 subtype, was confirmed at autopsy. There were borderline positive results in one sampled area of the placenta, but otherwise the cord blood and amniotic fluid were negative on our RT-QuIC assays. A healthy baby was delivered via C-section at 36 weeks and 3 days gestational age, with no evidence of neurological disease to date. We conclude that precautions should be taken with products of gestation, but the level of PrPSc is extremely low.

Asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation of prions reveals a strain-specific continuum of quaternary structures with protease resistance developing at a hydrodynamic radius of 15 nm.

Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative disorders that affect mammals, including humans. The central molecular event is the conversion of cellular prion glycoprotein, PrPC, into a plethora of assemblies, PrPSc, associated with disease. Distinct phenotypes of disease led to the concept of prion strains, which are associated with distinct PrPSc structures. However, the degree to which intra- and inter-strain PrPSc heterogeneity contributes to disease pathogenesis remains unclear. Addressing this question requires the precise isolation and characterization of all PrPSc subpopulations from the prion-infected brains. Until now, this has been challenging. We used asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) to isolate all PrPSc subpopulations from brains of hamsters infected with three prion strains: Hyper (HY) and 263K, which produce almost identical phenotypes, and Drowsy (DY), a strain with a distinct presentation. In-line dynamic and multi-angle light scattering (DLS/MALS) data provided accurate measurements of particle sizes and estimation of the shape and number of PrPSc particles. We found that each strain had a continuum of PrPSc assemblies, with strong correlation between PrPSc quaternary structure and phenotype. HY and 263K were enriched with large, protease-resistant PrPSc aggregates, whereas DY consisted primarily of smaller, more protease-sensitive aggregates. For all strains, a transition from protease-sensitive to protease-resistant PrPSc took place at a hydrodynamic radius (Rh) of 15 nm and was accompanied by a change in glycosylation and seeding activity. Our results show that the combination of AF4 with in-line MALS/DLS is a powerful tool for analyzing PrPSc subpopulations and demonstrate that while PrPSc quaternary structure is a major contributor to PrPSc structural heterogeneity, a fundamental change, likely in secondary/tertiary structure, prevents PrPSc particles from maintaining proteinase K resistance below an Rh of 15 nm, regardless of strain. This results in two biochemically distinctive subpopulations, the proportion, seeding activity, and stability of which correlate with prion strain phenotype.

From Cell Culture to Organoids-Model Systems for Investigating Prion Strain Characteristics.

Prion diseases are the hallmark protein folding neurodegenerative disease. Their transmissible nature has allowed for the development of many different cellular models of disease where prion propagation and sometimes pathology can be induced. This review examines the range of simple cell cultures to more complex neurospheres, organoid, and organotypic slice cultures that have been used to study prion disease pathogenesis and to test therapeutics. We highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each system, giving special consideration to the importance of strains when choosing a model and when interpreting results, as not all systems propagate all strains, and in some cases, the technique used, or treatment applied, can alter the very strain properties being studied.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease with a Five-Year Clinical Course, Multicentric Cerebellar Prion Plaques and Prior History of Biopsy-Proven Primary Angiitis of the Central Nervous System: A Case for Iatrogenic Exposure?

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rapidly progressive neurodegenerative disease that can arise spontaneously, genetically, or be acquired through iatrogenic exposure. Most patients die within a year of symptom onset. It is rare, affecting 1-2 per million per year, and the majority of cases are sporadic. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system (PACNS) is also rare, affecting 2.4 per million per year. We present a case of an unusually long clinical course of CJD, almost five years, which began with symptoms of apraxia. The patient had biopsy-proven PACNS 16 years prior to clinical presentation, and the site of biopsy was the left parietal lobe. Autopsy revealed multicentric prion plaques in the cerebellum, in the setting of normal genetic testing. The presence of plaques in the cerebellum, and prior neurosurgery, raises the possibility of iatrogenic exposure. We present the details of this case, including pathology from the original biopsy and final autopsy, as well as a review of relevant cases in the literature.

Exposure Risk of Chronic Wasting Disease in Humans.

The majority of human prion diseases are sporadic, but acquired disease can occur, as seen with variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) following consumption of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). With increasing rates of cervid chronic wasting disease (CWD), there is concern that a new form of human prion disease may arise. Currently, there is no evidence of transmission of CWD to humans, suggesting the presence of a strong species barrier; however, in vitro and in vivo studies on the zoonotic potential of CWD have yielded mixed results. The emergence of different CWD strains is also concerning, as different strains can have different abilities to cross species barriers. Given that venison consumption is common in areas where CWD rates are on the rise, increased rates of human exposure are inevitable. If CWD was to infect humans, it is unclear how it would present clinically; in vCJD, it was strain-typing of vCJD prions that proved the causal link to BSE. Therefore, the best way to screen for CWD in humans is to have thorough strain-typing of harvested cervids and human CJD cases so that we will be in a position to detect atypical strains or strain shifts within the human CJD population.

A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

One of remarkable features of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) is the great phenotypic variability. Understanding the molecular basis of this variability has important implications for the development of therapeutic approaches. It is well established that, in many cases, phenotypic heterogeneity of sCJD is under control of two determinants: the genotype at the methionine (M)/valine (V) polymorphic codon 129 of the human prion protein gene and the type, 1 or 2, of the pathogenic and disease-related form of the prion protein, PrPD. However, this scenario fails to explain the existence of distinct heterozygous sCJDMV2 subtypes, where heterogeneity occurs without any variation of the 129 allotype and PrPD type. One of these subtypes, denoted sCJDMV2C, associated with PrPD type 2, is characterized by widespread spongiform degeneration of the cerebral cortex (C). The second variant, denoted sCJDMV2K, features prominent deposition of PrPD amyloid forming kuru type (K) plaques. Here we used a mass spectrometry based approach to test the hypothesis that phenotypic variability within the sCJDMV2 subtype is at least partly determined by the abundance of 129 M and 129 V polymorphic forms of proteinase K-resistant PrPD (resPrPD). Consistent with this hypothesis, our data demonstrated a strong correlation of the MV2C and MV2K phenotypes with the relative populations of protease-resistant forms of the pathogenic prion proteins, resPrPD-129 M and resPrPD-129 V, where resPrPD-129 M dominated in the sCJDMV2C variant and resPrPD-129 V in the sCJDMV2K variant. This finding suggests an important, previously unrecognized mechanism for phenotypic determination in human prion diseases.

Native nanodiscs formed by styrene maleic acid copolymer derivatives help recover infectious prion multimers bound to brain-derived lipids.

Prions are lipidated proteins that interact with endogenous lipids and metal ions. They also assemble into multimers and propagate into the infectious scrapie form known as PrPSc The high-resolution structure of the infectious PrPSc state remains unknown, and its analysis largely relies on detergent-based preparations devoid of endogenous ligands. Here we designed polymers that allow isolation of endogenous membrane:protein assemblies in native nanodiscs without exposure to conventional detergents that destabilize protein structures and induce fibrillization. A set of styrene-maleic acid (SMA) polymers including a methylamine derivative facilitated gentle release of the infectious complexes for resolution of multimers, and a thiol-containing version promoted crystallization. Polymer extraction from brain homogenates from Syrian hamsters infected with Hyper prions and WT mice infected with Rocky Mountain Laboratories prions yielded infectious prion nanoparticles including oligomers and microfilaments bound to lipid vesicles. Lipid analysis revealed the brain phospholipids that associate with prion protofilaments, as well as those that are specifically enriched in prion assemblies captured by the methylamine-modified copolymer. A comparison of the infectivity of PrPSc attached to SMA lipid particles in mice and hamsters indicated that these amphipathic polymers offer a valuable tool for high-yield production of intact, detergent-free prions that retain in vivo activity. This native prion isolation method provides an avenue for producing relevant prion:lipid targets and potentially other proteins that form multimeric assemblies and fibrils on membranes.

Mycobacterium chimaera Encephalitis Following Cardiac Surgery: A New Syndrome.

We report the cases of 3 patients with fatal, disseminated Mycobacterium chimaera infections following cardiac surgeries. Progressive neurocognitive decline and death were explained by active granulomatous encephalitis, with widespread involvement of other organs. This syndrome is clinically elusive and, thus, may have caused deaths in prior reported series.

High Dose and Delayed Treatment with Bile Acids Ineffective in RML Prion-Infected Mice.

Prion diseases are a group of neurodegenerative diseases associated with the misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into the infectious form (PrPSc). There are currently no treatments for prion disease. Bile acids have the ability to protect hepatocytes from apoptosis and are neuroprotective in animal models of other protein-folding neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's disease. Importantly, bile acids are approved for clinical use in patients with cirrhosis and have recently been shown to be safe and possibly effective in pilot trials of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We previously reported that the bile acid ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), given early in disease, prolonged incubation periods in male RML-infected mice. Here, we expand on this result to include tauro-ursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) treatment trials and delayed UDCA treatment. We demonstrate that despite a high dose of TUDCA given early in disease, there was no significant difference in incubation periods between treated and untreated cohorts, regardless of sex. In addition, delayed treatment with a high dose of UDCA resulted in a significant shortening of the average survival time for both male and female mice compared to their sex-matched controls, with evidence of increased BiP, a marker of apoptosis, in treated female mice. Our findings suggest that treatment with high-dose TUDCA provides no therapeutic benefit and that delayed treatment with high-dose UDCA is ineffective and could worsen outcomes.

Pharmacological chaperone reshapes the energy landscape for folding and aggregation of the prion protein.

The development of small-molecule pharmacological chaperones as therapeutics for protein misfolding diseases has proven challenging, partly because their mechanism of action remains unclear. Here we study Fe-TMPyP, a tetrapyrrole that binds to the prion protein PrP and inhibits misfolding, examining its effects on PrP folding at the single-molecule level with force spectroscopy. Single PrP molecules are unfolded with and without Fe-TMPyP present using optical tweezers. Ligand binding to the native structure increases the unfolding force significantly and alters the transition state for unfolding, making it more brittle and raising the barrier height. Fe-TMPyP also binds the unfolded state, delaying native refolding. Furthermore, Fe-TMPyP binding blocks the formation of a stable misfolded dimer by interfering with intermolecular interactions, acting in a similar manner to some molecular chaperones. The ligand thus promotes native folding by stabilizing the native state while also suppressing interactions driving aggregation.

Dural Reduction Surgery: A Treatment Option for Frontotemporal Brain Sagging Syndrome.

Frontotemporal brain sagging syndrome is a dementia associated with hypersomnolence, personality changes, and features of intracranial hypotension on magnetic resonance imaging. The literature is sparse with respect to treatment options; many patients simply worsen. We present a case in which this syndrome responded to lumbar dural reduction surgery. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging indicated normalization of brain sagging and lumbar intrathecal pressure. Although no evidence of cerebrospinal leak was found, extremely thin dura was noted intraoperatively, suggesting that a thin and incompetent dura could result in this low-pressure syndrome. Clinicians who encounter this syndrome should consider dural reduction surgery as a treatment strategy.

Toll-like receptor-mediated immune response inhibits prion propagation.

Prion diseases are progressive neurodegenerative disorders affecting humans and various mammals. The prominent neuropathological change in prion diseases is neuroinflammation characterized by activation of neuroglia surrounding prion deposition. The cause and effect of this cellular response, however, is unclear. We investigated innate immune defenses against prion infection using primary mixed neuronal and glial cultures. Conditional prion propagation occurred in glial cultures depending on their immune status. Preconditioning of the cells with the toll-like receptor (TLR) ligand, lipopolysaccharide, resulted in a reduction in prion propagation, whereas suppression of the immune responses with the synthetic glucocorticoid, dexamethasone, increased prion propagation. In response to recombinant prion fibrils, glial cells up-regulated TLRs (TLR1 and TLR2) expression and secreted cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1ß, interleukin-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and interferon-ß). Preconditioning of neuronal and glial cultures with recombinant prion fibrils inhibited prion replication and altered microglial and astrocytic populations. Our results provide evidence that, in early stages of prion infection, glial cells respond to prion infection through TLR-mediated innate immunity.