Potentially Modifiable Dementia Risk Factors in Canada: An Analysis of Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging with a Multi-Country Comparison.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that up to 40% of dementia cases worldwide are associated with modifiable risk factors; however, these estimates are not known in Canada. Furthermore, sleep disturbances, an emerging factor, has not been incorporated into the life-course model of dementia prevention. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the population impact of 12 modifiable risk factors in Canadian adults including sleep disturbances, by sex and age groups, and to compare with other countries. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging baseline data. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: 30,097 adults aged 45 years and older. MEASUREMMENTS: Prevalence and Population Attributable Fractions (PAFs) associated with less education, hearing loss, traumatic brain injury, hypertension, excessive alcohol, obesity, smoking, depression, social isolation, physical inactivity, diabetes, and sleep disturbances. RESULTS: The risk factors with the largest PAF were later life physical inactivity (10.2%; 95% CI, 6.8% to 13%), midlife hearing loss (6.5%; 3.7% to 9.3%), midlife obesity (6.4%; 4.1% to 7.7%), and midlife hypertension (6.2%; 2.7% to 9.3%). The PAF of later life sleep disturbances was 3.0% (95% CI, 1.8% to 3.8%). The 12 risk factors accounted for 51.9% (32.2% to 68.0%) of dementia among men and 52.4% (32.5% to 68.7%) among women. Overall, the combined PAF of all risk factors was 49.2% (31.1% to 64.9%), and it increased with age. CONCLUSION: Nearly up to 50% of dementia cases in Canada are attributable to 12 modifiable risk factors across the lifespan. Canadian risk reduction strategies should prioritize targeting physical inactivity, hearing loss, obesity, and hypertension.

Protocol for the Brain Health Support Program Study of the Canadian Therapeutic Platform Trial for Multidomain Interventions to Prevent Dementia (CAN-THUMBS UP): A Prospective 12-Month Intervention Study.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: CAN-THUMBS UP is designed as a comprehensive and innovative fully remote program to 1) develop an interactive and compelling online Brain Health Support Program intervention, with potential to positively influence dementia literacy, self-efficacy and lifestyle risk factors; 2) enroll and retain a community-dwelling Platform Trial Cohort of individuals at risk of dementia who will participate in the intervention; 3) support an open platform trial to test a variety of multidomain interventions that might further benefit individuals at risk of dementia. This manuscript presents the Brain Health Support Program Study protocol. DESIGN/SETTING: Twelve-month prospective multi-center longitudinal study to evaluate a fully remote web-based educational intervention. Participants will subsequently be part of a Platform Trial Cohort and may be eligible to participate in further dementia prevention clinical trials. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred fifty older adults who are cognitively unimpaired or have mild cognitive impairment, with at least 1 well established dementia risk factor. INTERVENTION: Participants engage in the Brain Health Support Program intervention for 45-weeks and complete pre/post intervention measures. This intervention is designed to convey best available evidence for dementia prevention, consists of 181 chapters within 8 modules that are progressively delivered, and is available online in English and French. The program has been developed as a collaborative effort by investigators with recognized expertise in the program's content areas, along with input from older-adult citizen advisors. MEASUREMENTS: This study utilizes adapted remote assessments with accessible technologies (e.g. videoconferencing, cognitive testing via computer and mobile phone, wearable devices to track physical activity and sleep, self-administered saliva sample collection). The primary outcome is change in dementia literacy, as measured by the Alzheimer's Disease Knowledge Scale. Secondary outcomes include change in self-efficacy; engagement using the online program; user satisfaction ratings; and evaluation of usability and acceptance. Exploratory outcomes include changes in attitudes toward dementia, modifiable risk factors, performance on the Neuropsychological Test Battery, performance on self-administered online cognitive assessments, and levels of physical activity and sleep; success of the national recruitment plan; and the distribution of age adjusted polygenic hazard scores. CONCLUSIONS: This fully remote study provides an accessible approach to research with all study activities being completed in the participants' home environment. This approach may reduce barriers to participation, provide an easier and less demanding participant experience, and reach a broader geography with recruitment from all regions of Canada. CAN-THUMBS UP represents a Canadian contribution to the global World-Wide FINGERS program (alz.org/wwfingers).

Dual-task gait speed assessments with an electronic walkway and a stopwatch in older adults. A reliability study.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Slow gait speed prospectively predicts elevated risk of adverse events such as falls, morbidity, and mortality. Additionally, gait speed under a cognitively demanding challenge (dual-task gait) predicts further cognitive decline and dementia incidence. This evidence has been mostly collected using electronic walkways; however, not all clinical set ups have an electronic walkway and comparability with simple manual dual-gait speed testing, like a stopwatch, has not yet been examined. Our main objective was to assess concurrent-validity and reliability of gait speed assessments during dual-tasking using a stopwatch and electronic walkway in older adults with mild and subjective cognitive impairment (MCI and SCI). DESIGN: Cross-sectional, reliability study. SETTING: Clinic based laboratory at an academic hospital in London, ON, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: 237 walk tests from 34 community-dwelling participants (mean age 71.84 SD 5.38; 21 female - 62%, 13 male - 38%) with SCI and MCI. were included from the Comprehensive Assessment of Neurodegeneration and Dementia (COMPASS-ND) study. INTERVENTION: Each participant performed seven walk tests: three single gait walks at their normal pace, three dual-task walks (walking and counting backwards by one, by sevens, and naming animals), and one fast walk. MEASUREMENTS: Gait speed (cm/s) for each walk was measured simultaneously with an electronic walkway (Zeno Mat®) and a handheld stopwatch (Ultrak chronometer®). Dual-task cost (DTC) was calculated for the three individual dual-task walks as [((single gait speed - dual-task gait speed) / single gait speed) ∗ 100]. Level of agreement between the two measurement methods was analyzed using Pearson correlations, paired t-tests, and Bland-Altman plots. RESULTS: Gait speed was consistently lower when measured with the stopwatch than with the electronic walkway (mean speed difference: 10.6 cm/s ± 5.1, p < 0.001). Calculating DTC, however, yielded very similar results with both methods (mean DTC difference: 0.19 ± 1.18, p = 0.872). The higher the DTC, the closer the measurement between methods. CONCLUSION: Assessing and calculating DTC with a stopwatch is simple, accessible and reliable. Its validity and reliability were high in this clinical sample of community older adults with SCI and MCI.

A systematic review of viral exposures as a risk for rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Different viral exposures have been implicated in the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Evidence relating to the association between putative viral exposures and the development of RA was reviewed. METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted using MEDLINE-OVID, EMBASE-OVID, PUBMED and Cochrane library databases. Articles were included if they were case-controls, cross-sectional or cohort studies and were published in English. Case-series were included if there was a lack of other study designs. RESULTS: Of 6724 citations, 48 were included in meta-analysis. Studies had poor quality. PBV19 infection was increased in RA compared to controls [N = 12, odds ratio (OR) 1.77 (95% CI: 1.11; 2.80) p = 0.02 for PVB19 IgG]. IgG anti-EBNA antibodies were not increased in RA (N = 17, p = 0.75), but anti-VCA [N = 18, OR 1.5 (95% CI: 1.07; 2.10), p = 0.02] and anti-EA antibodies [N = 11, OR 2.74 (95% CI: 1.27; 5.94), p = 0.01] were increased in RA. CMV was not associated with RA (N = 13, p = 0.42), nor was HBV (N = 5, p = 0.09). HCV was associated with RA in 7 case-control studies [OR 2.82 (95% CI: 1.35; 5.90), p = 0.006] and one cohort study [hazard ratio (HR) 2.03 (95% CI: 1.27, 3.22), p < 0.01]. Persistent arthritis was increased after Chikungunya fever [N = 2, OR 90 (95% CI: 15.2, 134.3), p = 0.047]. CONCLUSIONS: Studies of RA after viral exposures have poor quality. There is a risk of RA after Parvo B19, HCV and possibly EBV infection. CMV and HBV infections are not associated with RA. CHIKV is associated with the persistent inflammatory arthritis.

Donepezil for gait and falls in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cognitive enhancers are commonly prescribed to people with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias to improve cognition and function. However, their effectiveness for individuals in the pre-stages of dementia, particularly in functional motor outcomes, remains unknown. We aimed to determine the efficacy of donepezil, a cognitive enhancer that improves cholinergic neurotransmission, on gait performance in mild cognitive impairment (MCI). METHODS: This was a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial including 60 older adults with MCI, randomized to receive donepezil (10 mg/daily, maximal dose) or placebo. Primary outcome was gait speed (cm/s) under single and three dual-task conditions (counting backwards by 1 or 7 and naming animals) measured using an electronic walkway. Dual-task gait cost (DTC), a valid measure of motor-cognitive interaction, was calculated as the percentage change between single (S) and dual-task (D) gait speeds: [(S - D)/S] × 100. Secondary outcomes included attention, executive function, balance and falls. RESULTS: After 6 months, the donepezil group experienced an improvement in dual-task gait speed (range 4-11 cm/s), although this was not statistically significant. The donepezil group showed a significant reduction in DTC (improvement) by counting backwards by 1 and 7 compared with placebo (10.25% vs. 1.75%, P = 0.048; 21.38% vs. 14.64%, P = 0.037, intention-to-treat analysis). Per-protocol analyses showed that all three DTCs improved in the donepezil group, along with a non-significant reduction of rate of falls. CONCLUSIONS: Donepezil treatment improved dual-task gait speed and DTC in elderly patients with MCI. Our results support the concept of reducing falls in MCI by targeting the motor-cognitive interface.

Identification and Characterization of Unique Subgroups of Chronic Pain Individuals with Dispositional Personality Traits.

Objective. The current study attempted to identify and characterize distinct CP subgroups based on their level of dispositional personality traits. The secondary objective was to compare the difference among the subgroups in mood, coping, and disability. Methods. Individuals with chronic pain were assessed for demographic, psychosocial, and personality measures. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted in order to identify distinct subgroups of patients based on their level of personality traits. Differences in clinical outcomes were compared using the multivariate analysis of variance based on cluster membership. Results. In 229 participants, three clusters were formed. No significant difference was seen among the clusters on patient demographic factors including age, sex, relationship status, duration of pain, and pain intensity. Those with high levels of dispositional personality traits had greater levels of mood impairment compared to the other two groups (p < 0.05). Significant difference in disability was seen between the subgroups. Conclusions. The study identified a high risk group of CP individuals whose level of personality traits significantly correlated with impaired mood and coping. Use of pharmacological treatment alone may not be successful in improving clinical outcomes among these individuals. Instead, a more comprehensive treatment involving psychological treatments may be important in managing the personality traits that interfere with recovery.

Facilitating Frailty Identification: Comparison of Two Methods among Community-Dwelling Order Adults.

BACKGROUND: Frailty is characterized by increased vulnerability for adverse events such as falls, fractures, placement, and death. Several frailty models have been developed, including the widely accepted Frailty Phenotype. However, the Frailty Phenotype can be difficult to apply in clinical practice. Alternatively, the Clinical Frailty Scale has been proposed based on its simplicity. To date, the Clinical Frailty Scale has not been validated against the Frailty Phenotype. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to test the inter-rater reliability of the Clinical Frailty Scale and its agreement with the Frailty Phenotype in frailty identification. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Retirement community in London, Ontario, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred and four community-dwelling older adults (age ≥75 years). MEASUREMENTS: Participants were first classified using the Frailty Phenotype criteria as not frail, pre-frail or frail. Subsequently, two clinicians blinded to the first assessment, determined frailty status using the Clinical Frailty Scale. Differences between assessments were resolved by consensus. Inter-rater reliability was assessed using kappa statistics. Spearman Rho correlation coefficients evaluated the concurrent validity of the Clinical Frailty Scale against Frailty Phenotype components. RESULTS: Analysis with kappa statistic showed substantial agreement between raters in applying the Clinical Frailty Scale to the sample (κw= 0.76, 95% CI 0.68, 0.84). The Clinical Frailty Scale scores also positively correlated with an increasing number of Frailty Phenotype components (ρ=0.69, p<0.01). CONCLUSION: The Clinical Frailty Scale is reliable and comparable to the Frailty Phenotype in identifying frailty in community-dwelling older adults with the advantage of being easy to administer in clinical settings. Reliable tools to identify frailty in community-dwelling older adults may help provide timely interventions to ameliorate risk of adverse events.

Association of executive function impairment, history of falls and physical performance in older adults: a cross-sectional population-based study in eastern France.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate: (1) the association between executive function (EF) impairment and falls; and (2) the association of EF impairment on tests of physical function used in the evaluation of fall risk. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Thirteen health examination centres in Eastern France. PARTICIPANTS: Four thousand four hundred and eighty one community-dwelling older adults without dementia aged 65 to 97 years (mean age 71.8±5.4, women 47.6%). MEASUREMENTS: Participants underwent a comprehensive medical assessment that included evaluations of EF using the Clock Drawing Test and of physical performance using the Timed Up and Go Test (TUG). Analysis used multivariable modified Poisson regression to evaluate the association between impaired EF and each of the fall outcomes (any fall, recurrent falls, fall-related injuries). Multivariable linear regression was used to evaluate the association between EF impairment and performance on the TUG and grip strength. RESULTS: EF impairment, assessed using the clock drawing test, was present in 24.9% of participants. EF impairment was independently associated with an increased risk of any fall (RR=1.13, 95% CI (1.03, 1.25)) and major soft tissue fall-related injury (RR= 2.42, 95% CI (1.47, 4.00)). Additionally, EF impairment was associated with worse performance on the TUG (p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: EF impairment among older adults without dementia was highly prevalent and was independently associated with an increased risk for falls, fall-related injuries and with decreased physical function. The use of the Clock Drawing Test is an easy to administer measure of EF that can be used routinely in comprehensive fall risk evaluations.

Phase II clinical trial of phlebotomy for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

BACKGROUND: Elevated iron indices are described in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and iron reduction has been suggested as a potential therapy. AIM: To determine whether phlebotomy is an effective therapy for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. METHODS: Patients with biopsy proven non-alcoholic fatty liver disease underwent baseline evaluation to determine severity of metabolic and liver disease. A Phase II trial of phlebotomy was carried out to achieve near-iron depletion (serum ferritin ≤50 µg/L or haemoglobin 100 g/L). Repeat liver biopsy, anthropometric and biochemical measurements were performed 6 months following the end of treatment. Primary outcome was improvement in liver histology, assessed using the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease activity score. RESULTS: Thirty-one patients completed follow-up. Iron reduction resulted in a significant improvement in the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease activity score (-0.74 ± 1.83, P = 0.019). Reductions in individual histological features of lobular inflammation (-0.29 ± 1.07, P = 0.182), steatosis (-0.26 ± 0.82, P = 0.134), hepatocyte ballooning (-0.19 ± 0.70, P = 0.213) did not achieve significance nor did the score for fibrosis (-0.32 ± 0.94, P = 0.099). CONCLUSIONS: This prospective Phase II study of phlebotomy with paired liver biopsies evaluating phlebotomy therapy in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients suggests that iron reduction may improve liver histology. However, the effect size of phlebotomy raises questions of whether treatment could have sufficient clinical significance to justify a definitive Phase III trial. This trial has been registered with the US National Institute of Health (clinicaltrials.gov, Identifier NCT 00641524).

Accepting kidneys from older living donors: impact on transplant recipient outcomes.

Older living kidney donors are regularly accepted. Better knowledge of recipient outcomes is needed to inform this practice. This retrospective cohort study observed kidney allograft recipients from Ontario, Canada between January 2000 and March 2008. Donors to these recipients were older living (≥ 60 years), younger living, or standard criteria deceased (SCD). Review of medical records and electronic healthcare data were used to perform survival analysis. Recipients received 73 older living, 1187 younger living and 1400 SCD kidneys. Recipients of older living kidneys were older than recipients of younger living kidneys. Baseline glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of older kidneys was 13 mL/min per 1.73 m² lower than younger kidneys. Median follow-up time was 4 years. The primary outcome of total graft loss was not significantly different between older and younger living kidney recipients [adjusted hazard ratio, HR (95%CI): 1.56 (0.98-2.49)]. This hazard ratio was not proportional and increased with time. Associations were not modified by recipient age or donor eGFR. There was no significant difference in total graft loss comparing older living to SCD kidney recipients [HR: 1.29 (0.80-2.08)]. In light of an observed trend towards potential differences beyond 4 years, uncertainty remains, and extended follow-up of this and other cohorts is warranted.

Does the treatment of spastic equinovarus deformity following stroke with botulinum toxin increase gait velocity? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

While botulinum toxin-A (BT-A) has been used to treat lower-limb focal spasticity successfully, its effect on characteristics of gait has not been well defined. The objective of this systematic review was to establish the treatment effect associated with the use of BT-A for equinovarus to improve gait velocity following stroke, using a meta-analytic technique. Relevant studies were identified through a literature search encompassing the years 1985 to November 2009. Studies were included if (i) the sample was composed of adult subjects recovering from either first or subsequent stroke, presenting with spastic equinovarus deformity of the ankle preventing full active dorsiflexion, and (ii) subjects who received BT-A were compared with subjects who had received a placebo, or (iii) in the absence of a placebo-controlled condition, subject had received BT-A and was assessed before and after treatment. A standardized mean difference (SMD) ± standard error and 95% confidence interval (CI) for gait velocity between the treatment and control group was calculated for each study, using Hedges's g, and the results pooled. Eight trials, five randomized controlled trials, and three single group intervention studies were included. Data representing 228 subjects were available for pooled analysis. Treatment with BT-A was associated with a small improvement in gait velocity (Hedge's g = 0.193 ± 0.081; 95% CI: 0.033 to 0.353, P < 0.018) representing an increase of 0.044 meters/s. The use of BT-A for lower-limb post-stroke equinovarus because of spasticity was associated with a small, but statistically significant increase in gait velocity.

Serial serum ferritin measurements in untreated HFE C282Y homozygotes in the Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening Study.

Hemochromatosis has often been associated with progressive iron overload, but the natural history of iron accumulation in untreated C282Y homozygotes has been reported infrequently. The Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening (HEIRS) Study screened 101 168 primary care participants for iron overload using transferrin saturation, unbound iron-binding capacity, Serum ferritin (SF), and HFE C282Y and H63D genotyping. SF was measured at initial screening (IS) and again when selected participants returned for a clinical examination (CE). The change in SF over the observation period (defined as ferritin rate of change) was analyzed according to age, gender, initial SF, initial SF/age, transferrin saturation, and iron removed by phlebotomy in C282Y homozygotes. Seventy-four male and 133 female untreated C282Y homozygotes were observed over a median of 112 days (34-924 days) between IS and CE. In men, SF increased in 54% and decreased in 46%. In women, SF increased in 50% and decreased in 50%. The significant variables affecting the SF rate were initial log SF (P = 0.0027) and transferrin saturation (P < 0.0001). Male C282Y homozygotes with higher SF rates (n = 27, upper 50th percentile) had significantly greater iron removed by phlebotomy (mean 4.93 g, range 1.0-17 g) than those with lower SF rates (n = 26, lower 50th percentile) (mean 2.6 g, 0.42-7.1, P < 0.05). SF was as likely to decrease as increase in untreated C282Y homozygotes over this relatively brief observation period. Incremental increases in SF are not inevitable in untreated C282Y homozygotes.

A genome-wide linkage scan for iron phenotype quantitative trait loci: the HEIRS Family Study.

Iron overload phenotypes in persons with and without hemochromatosis are variable. To investigate this further, probands with hemochromatosis or evidence of elevated iron stores and their family members were recruited for a genome-wide linkage scan to identify potential quantitative trait loci (QTL) that contribute to variation in transferrin saturation (TS), unsaturated iron-binding capacity (UIBC), and serum ferritin (SF). Genotyping utilized 402 microsatellite markers with average spacing of 9 cM. A total of 943 individuals, 64% Caucasian, were evaluated from 174 families. After adjusting for age, gender, and race/ethnicity, there was evidence for linkage of UIBC to chromosome 4q logarithm of the odds (LOD) = 2.08, p = 0.001) and of UIBC (LOD = 9.52), TS (LOD = 4.78), and SF (LOD = 2.75) to the chromosome 6p region containing HFE (each p < 0.0001). After adjustments for HFE genotype and other covariates, there was evidence of linkage of SF to chromosome 16p (LOD = 2.63, p = 0.0007) and of UIBC to chromosome 5q (LOD = 2.12, p = 0.002) and to chromosome 17q (LOD = 2.19, p = 0.002). We conclude that these regions should be considered for fine mapping studies to identify QTL that contribute to variation in SF and UIBC.

Initial screening transferrin saturation values, serum ferritin concentrations, and HFE genotypes in Native Americans and whites in the Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening Study.

We compared initial screening transferrin saturation (TfSat) and serum ferritin (SF) phenotypes and HFE C282Y and H63D genotypes of 645 Native American and 43,453 white Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening Study participants who did not report a previous diagnosis of hemochromatosis or iron overload. Elevated measurements were defined as TfSat >50% in men and >45% in women and SF >300 ng/ml in men and >200 ng/ml in women. Mean TfSat was 31% in Native American men and 32% in white men (p = 0.0337) and 25% in Native American women and 27% in white women (p < 0.0001). Mean SF was 153 microg/l in Native American and 151 microg/l in white men (p = 0.8256); mean SF was 55 microg/l in Native American women and 63 microg/l in white women (p = 0.0015). The C282Y allele frequency was 0.0340 in Native Americans and 0.0683 in whites (p < 0.0001). The H63D allele frequency was 0.1150 in Native Americans and 0.1532 in whites (p = 0.0001). We conclude that the screening TfSat and SF phenotypes of Native Americans are similar to those of whites. The allele frequencies of HFE C282Y and H63D are significantly lower in Native Americans than in whites.

Home care after hip fracture in a health planning region.

Health-care restructuring has increased the focus on integrating health care. Therefore the study purpose was to quantify patient movement from hospital to home care before restructuring occurred in a health planning district. Hospital discharge abstracts and home care records identified patients with a hip fracture who used home care (n = 353). Patients from acute care were more likely than rehabilitation or convalescent inpatients to wait > 3 days for home care after hospital discharge (RR 1.54, 95% CI 1.18, 2.00). Institution-dwellers were more likely than community-dwellers to wait > 3 days for home care (RR 2.35, 95% CI 1.86, 2.97). Home care rehabilitation clients were more likely than non-rehabilitation users to wait > 3 days for home care (RR 2.10, 95% CI 1.42, 3.09). Waiting time for home care is associated with hospital care setting and the home care service utilized. Evaluations of restructuring efforts should consider accounting for these relationships.

Lower extremity prosthetic mobility: a comparison of 3 self-report scales.

OBJECTIVE: To assess and compare the reliability and validity of the Houghton Scale, the Prosthetic Profile of the Amputee Locomotor Capabilities Index (PPA-LCI), and the Prosthetic Evaluation Questionnaire (PEQ) mobility subscale, 3 disease-specific self-report measures of functional mobility for lower extremity prosthetic mobility. DESIGN: Four-week test-retest: 1 sample for reliability analyses, 1 sample for validity analyses. SETTING: University-affiliated outpatient amputee clinic, in Ontario, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: Two outpatient amputee samples (sample 1 [n = 55], for reliability analysis; sample 2 [n = 329], for validity analysis). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Test-retest of reliability and convergent validity of the 3 scales. Convergent validity and discriminative ability were also assessed after setting a priori hypotheses for 2 scales of walking performance, balance confidence, and other indicators of ambulatory ability. RESULTS: The reliability of the PPA-LCI (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = .88) was slightly higher than the Houghton Scale (ICC = .85) and the PEQ mobility subscale (ICC = .77). The PPA-LCI was prone to high ceiling effects (40%) that would limit its ability to detect improvement. Evidence for convergent validity, when compared with the 2-Minute Walk Test, Timed Up and Go, and the Activity-Specific Balance Confidence Scale, was supported as hypothesized in all the scales. Each of the scales was able to discriminate between different groups for amputation cause, walking distance, mobility device use, and automatism, with each having varying strength related to relative precision. The Houghton Scale was the only scale able to distinguish between amputation levels. CONCLUSIONS: Reliability and validity of all the scales are acceptable for group level comparison. None of the scales had clearly superior psychometric properties compared with the others. Further research is required to assess responsiveness.

The influence of falling, fear of falling, and balance confidence on prosthetic mobility and social activity among individuals with a lower extremity amputation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess in amputee patients the relationship between having fallen in the past 12 months, fear of falling, and balance confidence on mobility capability, mobility performance, and social activity. DESIGN: Population-based survey and chart review. SETTING: Two university-affiliated outpatient amputee programs in southwestern Ontario. PARTICIPANTS: Community-living individuals (n = 435) with a unilateral lower limb amputation. INTERVENTIONS: Patient chart review and a survey questionnaire. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-report assessment of prosthetic capability and performance and social activity participation was assessed with the Prosthetic Evaluation Questionnaire mobility subscale, the Houghton Scale, and the Frenchay Activities Index. RESULTS: Falling experiences in the past 12 months were not significantly associated with any outcomes. Fear of falling was important in univariate relationships in all 3 outcomes, but not when balance confidence was included in multivariable modeling. Balance confidence was statistically significant with each of the outcomes and remained significant with inclusion of the covariates. There was statistical interaction (balance confidence x automatism; balance confidence x medication count) in modeling mobility capability and in modeling mobility performance (balance confidence x pain + balance confidence x amputation level). The final models accounted for 70%, 60%, and 55% of the variation in mobility capability, mobility performance, and social activity, respectively. CONCLUSION: Balance confidence was the only factor associated with mobility capability and performance and social activity in the final adjusted models. Clinicians and researchers should consider this variable in the rehabilitation of amputee patients.

The prevalence and risk factors of falling and fear of falling among lower extremity amputees.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the falling experience and fear of falling status and to describe characteristics associated with falling and fear of falling. DESIGN: Population-based consecutive sample survey and chart review. SETTING: Two Canadian, regional, university-affiliated outpatient amputee clinics. PARTICIPANTS: The sample (n = 435; mean age, 62 +/- 15.7 yr) of community-living participants was mostly male (71%), had unilateral (below knee 73%; above knee 27%) amputations primarily for vascular (53% vs 47% nonvascular) reasons. INTERVENTION: Review patient charts and survey questionnaires to determine sociodemographic information (eg, social support), information about the amputation (eg, cause, level, problems), physical health and function (eg, pain, limitations, comorbidity), and psychologic state (depression, adaptation). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Occurrence of a fall in the past 12 months and presence of a fear of falling. RESULTS: Exactly 52.4% subjects reported falling in the past year, whereas 49.2% reported a fear of falling. Logistic regression analyses revealed falling was related to having an above knee amputation (odds ratio [OR] = 2.78; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.71-4.51), back (OR = 1.96; 95% CI = 1.08-3.54) and joint (OR = 1.67; 95% CI = 1.01-2.74) pain, and multiple stump and prosthesis problems (OR = 3.09; 95% CI = 1.58-6.04). Having had the amputation > or = 4 years in the past was protective (OR =.53; 95% CI =.29-.89). Factors related to an increase risk of fear of falling included having to concentrate on each step while walking (OR = 4.06; 95% CI = 2.46-6.71) and having a fall in the past 12 months (OR = 1.62; 95% CI = 1.04-2.54), whereas being male (OR = 0.35; 95% CI =.21-.57) and having good to excellent perceived health (OR =.35; 95% CI =.21-.58) were protective. CONCLUSIONS: Falling and fear of falling are pervasive among amputees. Comprehensive and ongoing intervention and education should be considered. Research is required to assess the consequences of falling and fear of falling.

An upper body musculoskeletal assessment instrument for patients with work-related musculoskeletal disorders: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the reliability and validity of a new outcome measure, the Upper Body Musculoskeletal Assessment (UBMA). DESIGN: Twenty subjects physician-diagnosed as having work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMD) and ten healthy subjects were assessed using the UBMA on three separate occasions. All subjects with WRMD attributed their injury to equipment use on their job. RESULTS: The WRMD group had significantly higher UBMA scores on the side of equipment use than on the other side (p <0.01), whereas the healthy group had similar scores on both sides (p> 0.05). UBMA scores for the WRMD group were significantly greater on both sides of the body than scores for the healthy group (p<0.01). Only one test occasion was required to produce excellent reliability coefficients (ICCs>0.88). Although group reliability was excellent, changes of 24% for patients with WRMD and 44% for healthy subjects would be required for confidence that UBMA scores for individual patients on the side of equipment use had changed from baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Although testing on one occasion produced reliable UBMA scores, healthy subjects could be distinguished from patients with WRMD, and the side of equipment use could be distinguished from the other side in patients with WRMD, prediction of individual UBMA scores was poor. In its present form, the UBMA is useful for making decisions about groups but not about individual patients. Modifications of the current UBMA are required to reduce measurement error.

A general population study of fibromyalgia tender points in noninstitutionalized adults with chronic widespread pain.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the distribution and predictive ability of fibromyalgia (FM) tender points (TP) in adults with chronic widespread pain. METHODS: Using published classification criteria, we confirmed 100 FM cases and 76 controls with widespread pain not meeting the 1990 American College of Rheumatology (ACR) classification criteria for FM (pain controls) in a survey of 3,395 adults screened for widespread musculoskeletal pain in a general population survey. RESULTS: At each of the 18 FM tender points, FM cases were more likely than pain controls to have tenderness, and the likelihood ratio (LR) was statistically greater than 1.0 for 13 of 18 points. However, the LR for individual points ranged from 4.0 to as low as 1.2. Females were more likely to have TP, especially at lower body points; however, lower body points were more discriminatory in males. CONCLUSION: TP differ in their ability to predict FM among adults in the general population with chronic widespread pain.