Unveiling a Virulence-Regulating Mechanism in Aeromonas hydrophila: a Quantitative Exoproteomic Analysis of an AraC-Like Protein.

Bacterial AraC is a transcription factor family that initiates transcription by recruiting RNA polymerase to the promoter and directly regulating various bacterial phenotypes. It also directly regulates various bacterial phenotypes. However, how this transcription factor regulates bacterial virulence and affects host immunity is still largely unknown. In this study, deleting the orf02889 (AraC-like transcription factor) gene in virulent Aeromonas hydrophila LP-2 affected several important phenotypes, such as increasing biofilm formation and siderophore production abilities. Moreover, Δorf02889 also significantly decreased the virulence of A. hydrophila and has promising attenuated vaccine potential. To better understand the effects of orf02889 on biological functions, a data independent acquisition (DIA)-based quantitative proteomics method was performed to compare the differentially expressed proteins between Δorf02889 and the wild-type strain in extracellular fractions. The following bioinformatics analysis suggested that ORF02889 may regulate various metabolic pathways, such as quorum sensing and ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter metabolism. Moreover, 10 selected genes from the top 10 decreasing abundances in proteomics data were deleted, and their virulence to zebrafish was evaluated, respectively. The results showed that ΔcorC, Δorf00906, and Δorf04042 significantly reduced bacterial virulence. Finally, the following chromatin immunoprecipitation and polymerase chain reaction (ChIP-PCR) assay validated that the promoter of corC was directly regulated by ORF02889. Overall, these results provide insight into the biological function of ORF02889 and demonstrate its inherent regulatory mechanism for the virulence of A. hydrophila.

Quantitative Proteomics Reveals That the Protein Components of Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) in Aeromonas hydrophila Play Protective Roles in Antibiotic Resistance.

In recent years, the intracellular mechanisms that contribute to antibiotic resistance have received increasing attention, and outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) have been reported to be related to antibiotic resistance in several Gram-negative bacterial species. However, the intrinsic molecular mechanisms and the form of such antibiotic resistance are still largely unknown. In this study, OMVs from an oxytetracycline (OXY) sensitive aquatic pathogen, Aeromonas hydrophila (OXY-S), were found with significantly increased OXY resistance. Interestingly, the OXY-resistant strain (OXY-R) had a more protective role in OXY resistance. Therefore, a DIA-based quantitative proteomics analysis was performed to compare the differential expression of OMV proteins between OXY-R (OMVsR) and OXY-S (OMVsS). The results showed that seven proteins increased and five proteins decreased in OMVsR vs OMVsS. A subsequent antibiotics susceptibility assay showed that the deletion of icd, rpsF, and iscS significantly increased OXY sensitivity. Moreover, the exogenous addition of the crude OMV fractions of overexpressed recombinant proteins in E. coli with rRpsF, rIcd, rIscS, rOmpA, rPepA, rFrdA, and rRplQ demonstrated that these proteins promoted the OXY resistance of A. hydrophila. Overall, our results indicate the important protective role of OMVs in antibiotic resistance in A. hydrophila and provide novel insights on bacterial antibiotic resistance mechanisms.

Marine Bacterial Secondary Metabolites: A Treasure House for Structurally Unique and Effective Antimicrobial Compounds.

The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance reduces the effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs in preventing and treating infectious diseases caused by pathogenic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Because of the burgeoning growth of microbes with antimicrobial-resistant traits, there is a dire need to identify and develop novel and effective antimicrobial agents to treat infections from antimicrobial-resistant strains. The marine environment is rich in ecological biodiversity and can be regarded as an untapped resource for prospecting novel bioactive compounds. Therefore, exploring the marine environment for antimicrobial agents plays a significant role in drug development and biomedical research. Several earlier scientific investigations have proven that bacterial diversity in the marine environment represents an emerging source of structurally unique and novel antimicrobial agents. There are several reports on marine bacterial secondary metabolites, and many are pharmacologically significant and have enormous promise for developing effective antimicrobial drugs to combat microbial infections in drug-resistant pathogens. In this review, we attempt to summarize published articles from the last twenty-five years (1996-2020) on antimicrobial secondary metabolites from marine bacteria evolved in marine environments, such as marine sediment, water, fauna, and flora.

Proteomics Analysis Reveals Bacterial Antibiotics Resistance Mechanism Mediated by ahslyA Against Enoxacin in Aeromonas hydrophila.

Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a serious global problem; the underlying regulatory mechanisms are largely elusive. The earlier reports states that the vital role of transcriptional regulators (TRs) in bacterial antibiotic resistance. Therefore, we have investigated the role of TRs on enoxacin (ENX) resistance in Aeromonas hydrophila in this study. A label-free quantitative proteomics method was utilized to compare the protein profiles of the ahslyA knockout and wild-type A. hydrophila strains under ENX stress. Bioinformatics analysis showed that the deletion of ahslyA triggers the up-regulated expression of some vital antibiotic resistance proteins in A. hydrophila upon ENX stress and thereby reduce the pressure by preventing the activation of SOS repair system. Moreover, ahslyA directly or indirectly induced at least 11 TRs, which indicates a complicated regulatory network under ENX stress. We also deleted six selected genes in A. hydrophila that altered in proteomics data in order to evaluate their roles in ENX stress. Our results showed that genes such as AHA_0655, narQ, AHA_3721, AHA_2114, and AHA_1239 are regulated by ahslyA and may be involved in ENX resistance. Overall, our data demonstrated the important role of ahslyA in ENX resistance and provided novel insights into the effects of transcriptional regulation on antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

AHL-Lactonase Producing Psychrobacter sp. From Palk Bay Sediment Mitigates Quorum Sensing-Mediated Virulence Production in Gram Negative Bacterial Pathogens.

Quorum sensing (QS) is a signaling mechanism governed by bacteria used to converse at inter- and intra-species levels through small self-produced chemicals called N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs). Through QS, bacteria regulate and organize the virulence factors' production, including biofilm formation. AHLs can be degraded by an action called quorum quenching (QQ) and hence QQ strategy can effectively be employed to combat biofilm-associated bacterial pathogenesis. The present study aimed to identify novel bacterial species with QQ potential. Screening of Palk Bay marine sediment bacteria for QQ activity ended up with the identification of marine bacterial isolate 28 (MSB-28), which exhibited a profound QQ activity against QS biomarker strain Chromobacterium violaceum ATCC 12472. The isolate MSB-28 was identified as Psychrobacter sp. through 16S-rRNA sequencing. Psychrobacter sp. also demonstrated a pronounced activity in controlling the biofilm formation in different bacteria and biofilm-associated virulence factors' production in P. aeruginosa PAO1. Solvent extraction, heat inactivation, and proteinase K treatment assays clearly evidence the enzymatic nature of the bioactive lead. Furthermore, AHL's lactone ring cleavage was confirmed with experiments including ring closure assay and chromatographic analysis, and thus the AHL-lactonase enzyme production in Psychrobacter sp. To conclude, this is the first report stating the AHL-lactonase mediated QQ activity from marine sediment bacteria Psychrobacter sp. Future work deals with the characterization, purification, and mass cultivation of the purified protein and should pave the way to assessing the feasibility of the identified protein in controlling QS and biofilm-mediated multidrug resistant bacterial infections in mono or multi-species conditions.

Bacterial Biofilm Inhibition: A Focused Review on Recent Therapeutic Strategies for Combating the Biofilm Mediated Infections.

Biofilm formation is a major concern in various sectors and cause severe problems to public health, medicine, and industry. Bacterial biofilm formation is a major persistent threat, as it increases morbidity and mortality, thereby imposing heavy economic pressure on the healthcare sector. Bacterial biofilms also strengthen biofouling, affecting shipping functions, and the offshore industries in their natural environment. Besides, they accomplish harsh roles in the corrosion of pipelines in industries. At biofilm state, bacterial pathogens are significantly resistant to external attack like antibiotics, chemicals, disinfectants, etc. Within a cell, they are insensitive to drugs and host immune responses. The development of intact biofilms is very critical for the spreading and persistence of bacterial infections in the host. Further, bacteria form biofilms on every probable substratum, and their infections have been found in plants, livestock, and humans. The advent of novel strategies for treating and preventing biofilm formation has gained a great deal of attention. To prevent the development of resistant mutants, a feasible technique that may target adhesive properties without affecting the bacterial vitality is needed. This stimulated research is a rapidly growing field for applicable control measures to prevent biofilm formation. Therefore, this review discusses the current understanding of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacterial biofilm and intensely emphasized the novel therapeutic strategies for combating biofilm mediated infections. The forthcoming experimental studies will focus on these recent therapeutic strategies that may lead to the development of effective biofilm inhibitors than conventional treatments.

A comprehensive mobile application tool for disease surveillance, workforce management and supply chain management for Malaria Elimination Demonstration Project.

BACKGROUND: Health care technologies are now offering accountability, quality, robustness, and accuracy in disease surveillance and health care delivery programmes. With the advent of mobile hand-held devices, these technologies have become more accessible and adaptable for use by field staff working in remote areas. The Malaria Elimination Demonstration Project started collection of data and conduct of routine operations using paper-based reporting systems. Observing the need for a robust and quality digital mobile application, a comprehensive mobile application tool was developed that allowed the project to conduct disease surveillance, workforce management and supply chain management. METHODS: In June 2017, the project conceptualized a comprehensive mobile application tool in the local language (Hindi) for disease surveillance, human resources management, and supply chain management. The tool is also available in English. Solution for Community Health-workers (SOCH) mobile app is an android native application developed using android SDK and web-based tool using MVC.net framework. Construction of the application started in November 2017 and rolled out its pilot in April 2018, followed by pan-district roll out in July 2018. The application uses self-validation tools to ensure high level of data quality and integrity. RESULTS: The software is available in android based hand-held devices and web-screens with built-in data analytical capabilities. Using SOCH, the project has now successfully digitized its routine surveillance, attendance, tour plans, supply chain management components. The project has documented a reduction in 91% indigenous cases in the district, 60% improvement in stock accountability, and 99.6% accuracy in data collected through the mobile application. CONCLUSION: SOCH is an excellent and user-friendly tool, which can be customized for any public health management programme. The system ensures accountability and data robustness, which is needed for malaria elimination efforts throughout the country. The mobile application can be adapted for English or any other Indian or international language for use for malaria or any other disease surveillance and control programme. Another expansion feature of this mobile application is incorporation of indicators for Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS), Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs), and minor engineering by the residents of community under surveillance. The authors believe that it would be highly desirable and appropriate for an international organization, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), to conduct an independent comparison of all available mobile e-surveillance tools, so that a high-performing and globally suitable system can be selected for use in malaria elimination programmes. The Foundation of Disease Elimination and Controlof India has decided to make the SOCH mobile application available to anyone who would like to use it for disease surveillance and health care programmes.

Development of a U-bent plastic optical fiber biosensor with plasmonic labels for the detection of chikungunya non-structural protein 3.

This study presents a novel plasmonic fiber optic sandwich immunobiosensor for the detection of chikungunya, an infectious mosquito-borne disease with chronic musculoskeletal pain and acute febrile illness, by exploiting non-structural protein 3 (CHIKV-nsP3) as a biomarker. A plasmonic sandwich immunoassay for CHIKV-nsP3 was realized on the surface of a compact U-bent plastic optical fiber (POF, 0.5 mm core diameter) with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as labels. The high evanescent wave absorbance (EWA) sensitivity of the U-bent probes allows the absorption of the light passing through the fiber by the AuNP labels, upon the formation of a sandwich immunocomplex of CHIKV-nsP3 on the core surface of the U-bent probe region. A simple optical set-up with a low-cost green LED and a photodetector on either end of the U-bent probe gave rise to a detection limit of 0.52 ng mL-1 (8.6 pM), and a linear range of 1-104 ng mL-1 with a sensitivity of 0.1043A530 nm/log(CnsP3). In addition, the plasmonic POF biosensor shows strong specificity towards the CHIKV-nsP3 analyte in comparison with Pf-HRP2, HIgG, and dengue whole virus. The results illustrate the potential of plasmonic POF biosensors for direct and sensitive point-of-care detection of the chikungunya viral disease.

2-Hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde from Hemidesmus indicus is antagonistic to Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation.

Staphylococcus epidermidis (SE) is an opportunistic nosocomial pathogen that accounts for recalcitrant device-related infections worldwide. Owing to the growing interest in plants and their secondary metabolites targeting bacterial adhesion, this study was intended to uncover the anti-biofilm potential of Hemidesmus indicus and its major constituent 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (HMB) against SE. The minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) of H. indicus root extract and HMB were found to be 500 and 250 µg ml-1, respectively. The results of time-dependent biofilm inhibition and mature biofilm disruption assays confirmed that HMB targets initial cell adhesion. Furthermore, interference by HMB in the expression of adhesin genes (icaA, aap and bhp) and biofilm components was associated with an increased susceptibility of SE to oxidative stress and antibiotics. To conclude, this study reports for the first time HMB as a potential drug against SE biofilms.

Anti-quorum Sensing and Protective Efficacies of Naringin Against Aeromonas hydrophila Infection in Danio rerio.

It is now well known that the quorum sensing (QS) mechanism coordinates the production of several virulence factors and biofilm formation in most pathogenic microorganisms. Aeromonas hydrophila is a prime pathogen responsible for frequent outbreaks in aquaculture settings. Recent studies have also continuously reported that A. hydrophila regulates virulence factor production and biofilm formation through the QS system. In addition to the presence of antibiotic resistance genes, biofilm-mediated antibiotic resistance increases the severity of A. hydrophila infections. To control the bacterial pathogenesis and subsequent infections, targeting the QS mechanism has become one of the best alternative methods. Though very few compounds were identified as QS inhibitors against A. hydrophila, to date, the screening and identification of new and effective natural QS inhibitors is a dire necessity to control the infectious A. hydrophila. The present study endorses naringin (NA) as an anti-QS and anti-infective agent against A. hydrophila. Initially, the NA showed a concentration-dependent biofilm reduction against A. hydrophila. Furthermore, the results of microscopic analyses and quantitative virulence assays displayed the promise of NA as a potential anti-QS agent. Subsequently, the downregulation of ahh1, aerA, lip and ahyB validate the interference of NA in virulence gene expression. Furthermore, the in vivo assays were carried out in zebrafish model system to evaluate the anti-infective potential of NA. The outcome of the immersion challenge assay showed that the recovery rate of the zebrafish has substantially increased upon treatment with NA. Furthermore, the quantification of the bacterial load upon NA treatment showed a decreased level of bacterial counts in zebrafish when compared to the untreated control. Moreover, the NA treatment averts the pathogen-induced histoarchitecture damages in vital organs of zebrafish, compared to their respective controls. The current study has thus analyzed the anti-QS and anti-infective capabilities of NA and could be employed to formulate effective treatment measures against A. hydrophila infections.

Protective effect of neglected plant Diplocyclos palmatus on quorum sensing mediated infection of Serratia marcescens and UV-A induced photoaging in model Caenorhabditis elegans.

Plants are considered to be a leading source for possible human therapeutic agents. This holistic study has investigated the anti-quorum sensing (anti-QS), anti-infection, antioxidant and anti-photoaging properties of neglected plant Diplocyclos palmatus. The results showed that D. palmatus methanolic leaf extract (DPME) effectively inhibited the quorum sensing (QS) regulated virulence factor production as well as biofilm formation in Serratia marcescens. The transcriptomic analysis revealed that DPME significantly downed the expression of QS-regulated genes such as fimA, fimC, flhC, bsmB, pigP and shlA in S. marcescens, which supports the outcome of in vitro bioassays. Further, the docking study revealed that the presence of active compounds, namely tocopherols and phytol, DPME exhibited its anti-QS activity against S. marcescens. In addition, DPME treatment extended the lifespan of S. marcescens infected C. elegans by the action of dropping the internal accumulation. Further, qPCR analysis clearly revealed that DPME treatment significantly up-regulated the expression of the lifespan-related gene (daf-16) and immune-related genes (clec-60, clec-87, lys-7 and bec-1) in S. marcescens infected C.elegans. On the other hand, DPME extensively reduced the UV-A induced ROS stress, thereby, extended the lifespan in UV-A photoaged C. elegans. Further, the qPCR analysis also confirmed the up-regulation of daf-16, clec-60, clec-87 and col-19 genes which advocated the improvement of the lifespan, healthspan and collagen production in UV-A photoaged C. elegans. Further bioassays evidenced that that the lifespan extension of photoaged C. elegans was accomplished by the actions of antioxidants such as tocopherols and phytol in DPME.

The characteristics of antibiotic resistance and phenotypes in 29 outer-membrane protein mutant strains in Aeromonas hydrophila.

Although many typical outer-membrane proteins (OMPs) have been well characterized, the biological functions of many OMPs remain largely elusive. In this study, we successfully constructed 29 OMP knockout strains in the pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila, which account for about 50% of all predicted OMPs in this bacterial species. We then further validated the antibiotics' susceptibility characteristics against 20 antimicrobial reagents in these mutants considering several phenotypes. Our results showed that a total of 22 OMP mutants affected the susceptibility to at least one antibiotic. The deletion of some OMPs, such as ΔlamB and ΔbamA, revealed very important roles in the resistance to certain antibiotics. However, not a single OMP mutant presented a constant behaviour to all of the tested antibiotics, suggesting the existence of a complex intercellular regulation mechanism and a protein-protein interaction network underlying the OMP homeostasis in the presence of antibiotics. Meanwhile, some OMP mutants also affected biofilm formation, ECPase and haemolytic activity, and carbon resources utilization. This report demonstrates the biological functions of OMPs on a large scale and most of results have not been reported in A. hydrophila.

Anti-virulence potential of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and its clinical isolates.

Burgeoning antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens necessitates the alternative treatment options to control the multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. Plant secondary metabolites, a significant source of structurally diverse compounds, posses several biological activities. The present study was designed to investigate the anti-virulence potential of least explored phytocompound 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (HMB) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and its clinical isolates. The minimum inhibitory concentration of HMB was found to be 1024 µg/ml. HMB at sub-MIC (200 µg/ml) exhibited a profound staphyloxanthin inhibitory activity against MRSA and its clinical isolates. Besides, growth curve analysis revealed the non-bactericidal activity of HMB at its sub-MIC. Other virulences of MRSA such as lipase, nuclease, and hemolysin were also significantly inhibited upon HMB treatment. The observations made out of blood and H2O2 sensitivity assay suggested that HMB treatment sensitized the test pathogens and aided the functions of host immune responses. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that HMB targets the virulence regulatory genes such as sigB and saeS to attenuate the production of virulence arsenal in MRSA. Further, the result of in vitro cytotoxicity assay using PBMC cells portrayed the non-toxic nature of HMB. To our knowledge, for the first time, the present study reported the virulence inhibitory property of HMB against MRSA along with plausible molecular mechanisms. Additional studies incorporating in vivo analysis and omics technologies are required to explore the anti-virulence potential of HMB and its mode of action during MRSA infections.

In vitro and in vivo biofilm inhibitory efficacy of geraniol-cefotaxime combination against Staphylococcus spp.

In humans, the occurrence of bacterial communities in the form of biofilm is considered as a major intrinsic factor accountable for a variety of stubborn infections. Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis have gained considerable attention in clinical settings owing to the formation of intractable and long-lasting biofilms in medical device. The current study has been designed to explain the biofilm inhibitory efficacy of geraniol and cefotaxime combination (GCC) against S. epidermidis and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Biofilm biomass quantification assay was performed to evaluate the antibiofilm activity of GCC against S. epidermidis and MRSA. The minimal biofilm inhibitory concentration of GCC was found to be 100 µg/ml of geraniol and 2 µg/ml of cefotaxime. Further, microscopic analyses ascertained the devastating potential of GCC on the test pathogens' biofilm formation. Besides biofilm inhibition, GCC also suppressed the production of extracellular polymeric substance, slime and staphyloxanthin. More, GCC significantly increased the susceptibility of the test pathogens towards human blood. Further, the results of real time PCR analysis and in vivo assay using Caenorhabditis elegans unveiled the anti-biofilm potentials of GCC. Thus, the present study demonstrates the significant use of polytherapy treatment approaches to overcome the biofilm associated infections of Staphylococcus spp.

Inhibitory effect of α-mangostin on Acinetobacter baumannii biofilms - an in vitro study.

The present study was designed to investigate the anti-biofilm potential of alpha-mangostin (α-MG) against Acinetobacter baumannii (AB). The biofilm inhibitory concentration (BIC) of α-MG against AB was found to be 2 µg ml-1. α-MG (0.5, 1 and 2 µg ml-1) exhibited non-bactericidal concentration-dependent anti-biofilm activities against AB. However, α-MG failed to disintegrate the mature biofilms of AB even at a 10-fold increased concentration from its BIC. Results from qRT-PCR and in vitro bioassays further demonstrated that α-MG downregulated the expression of bfmR, pgaA, pgaC, csuA/B, ompA, bap, katE, and sodB genes, which correspondingly affects biofilm formation and its associated virulence traits. The present study suggests that α-MG exerts its anti-biofilm property by interrupting initial biofilm formation and the cell-to-cell signaling mechanism of AB. Additional studies are required to understand the mode of action responsible for the anti-biofilm property.

Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Piper betle aqueous extract and evaluation of its anti-quorum sensing and antibiofilm potential against uropathogens with cytotoxic effects: an in vitro and in vivo approach.

Urinary tract infections are the utmost common bacterial infections caused by Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Serratia marcescens. These uropathogens resist the action of several antibiotics due to their ability to form biofilms. Most of these bacterial pathogens use the quorum sensing (QS) machinery to co-ordinate their cells and regulate several virulence factors and biofilm formation. On the other hand, the anti-quorum sensing (anti-QS) and antibiofilm potential of silver nanoparticles have been well reported against certain bacterial pathogens, but to the best of our knowledge, no report is available against the pathogenicity of uropathogens in particular S. marcescens and P. mirabilis. Therefore, the present study is primarily focused on the anti-QS and antibiofilm potential of Piper betle-based synthesized silver nanoparticles (PbAgNPs) against S. marcescens and P. mirabilis. Initially, the silver nanoparticles were synthesized by the aqueous extract of P. betle and characterized by UV-absorbance spectroscopy, XRD, FT-IR, SEM, TEM, and DLS. The synthesized silver nanoparticles were assessed for their anti-QS activity and the obtained results revealed that the PbAgNPs inhibited the QS-mediated virulence factors such as prodigiosin, protease, biofilm formation, exopolysaccharides and hydrophobicity productions in uropathogens. The gene expression analysis divulged the downregulation of fimA, fimC, flhD, and bsmB genes in S. marcescens and flhB, flhD, and rsbA genes in P. mirabilis, respectively. The in vivo Caenorhabditis elegans assays revealed the non-toxic and anti-adherence efficiency of PbAgNPs. Furthermore, the non-toxic effect of PbAgNPs was also confirmed through peripheral blood mononuclear cells and normal lung epithelial cells. Therefore, the contemporary study demonstrates the use of PbAgNPs as a possible alternative toward conventional antibiotics in controlling QS and biofilm-related uropathogen infections.

Exploring the Anti-quorum Sensing and Antibiofilm Efficacy of Phytol against Serratia marcescens Associated Acute Pyelonephritis Infection in Wistar Rats.

Quorum Sensing (QS) mechanism, a bacterial density-dependent gene expression system, governs the Serratia marcescens pathogenesis through the production of virulence factors and biofilm formation. The present study demonstrates the anti-quorum sensing (anti-QS), antibiofilm potential and in vivo protective effect of phytol, a diterpene alcohol broadly utilized as food additive and in therapeutics fields. In vitro treatment of phytol (5 and 10 µg/ml) showed decreasing level of biofilm formation, lipase and hemolysin production in S. marcescens compared to their respective controls. More, microscopic analyses confirmed the antibiofilm potential of phytol. The biofilm related phenomenons such as swarming motility and exopolysccharide productions were also inhibited by phytol. Furthermore, the real-time analysis elucidated the molecular mechanism of phytol which showed downregulation of fimA, fimC, flhC, flhD, bsmB, pigP, and shlA gene expressions. On the other hand, the in vivo rescue effect of phytol was assessed against S. marcescens associated acute pyelonephritis in Wistar rat. Compared to the infected and vehicle controls, the phytol treated groups (100 and 200 mg/kg) showed decreased level of bacterial counts in kidney, bladder tissues and urine samples on the 5th post infection day. As well, the phytol treatment showed reduced level of virulence enzymes such as lipase and protease productions compared to the infected and vehicle controls. Further, the infected and vehicle controls showed increasing level of inflammatory markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) productions. In contrast, the phytol treatment showed decreasing level of inflammatory markers. In histopathology, the uninfected animal showed normal kidney and bladder structure, wherein, the infected animals showed extensive infiltration of neutrophils in kidney and bladder tissues. In contrast, the phytol treatment showed normal kidney and bladder tissues. Additionally, the toxic effect of phytol (200 mg/kg) was assessed by single dose toxicity analysis. No changes were observed in hematological, biochemical profiles and histopathological analysis of vital organs in phytol treated animals compared to the untreated controls. Hence, this study suggested the potential use of phytol for its anti-QS, antibiofilm and anti-inflammatory properties against S. marcescens infections and their associated inflammation reactions.

Inhibitory efficacy of geraniol on biofilm formation and development of adaptive resistance in Staphylococcus epidermidis RP62A.

PURPOSE: The current study has been designed to delineate the efficacy of geraniol (GE) on biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis as well as the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of GE on the development of adaptive resistance. METHODOLOGY: Biofilm biomass quantification assay was performed to evaluate the antibiofilm activity of GE against S. epidermidis. Microscopic observation of biofilms and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), slime and cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) production were also studied to support the antibiofilm potential of GE. In addition, S. epidermidis was examined for its adaptive resistance development upon continuous exposure of GE at its subinhibitory concentrations.Results/Key findings. The MIC of GE against S. epidermidis was 512 µg ml-1. Without hampering the growth of the pathogen, GE at its sub-MICs (50, 100, 150 and 200 µg ml-1) exhibited a dose-dependent increase in antibiofilm activity. The minimal biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) of GE was found to be 200 µg ml-1 with a maximum biofilm inhibition of 85 %. Disintegrated biofilm architecture, reduced EPS, slime and CSH production validated the antibiofilm efficacy of GE. Although the action of GE on preformed biofilm is limited, a 2,3-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide (XTT) reduction assay and live/dead cell staining method revealed reduction in the viability (47 %) of biofilm inhabitants at 2×MIC concentration. Sequential exposure of S. epidermidis to the sub-MICs of GE resulted in poor development of adaptive resistance with diminished biofilm formation. CONCLUSION: The present study highlights the potential of GE as a suitable candidate for the control of biofilm-mediated S. epidermidis infections.

Antibiofilm activity of Vetiveria zizanioides root extract against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a leading human pathogen responsible for causing chronic clinical manifestation worldwide. In addition to antibiotic resistance genes viz. mecA and vanA, biofilm formation plays a prominent role in the pathogenicity of S. aureus by enhancing its resistance to existing antibiotics. Considering the role of folk medicinal plants in the betterment of human health from the waves of multidrug resistant bacterial infections, the present study was intended to explore the effect of Vetiveria zizanioides root on the biofilm formation of MRSA and its clinical counterparts. V. zizanioides root extract (VREX) showed a concentration-dependent reduction in biofilm formation without hampering the cellular viability of the tested strains. Micrographs of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) portrayed the devastating impact of VREX on biofilm formation. In addition to antibiofilm activity, VREX suppresses the production of biofilm related phenotypes such as exopolysaccharide, slime and α-hemolysin toxin. Furthermore, variation in FT-IR spectra evidenced the difference in cellular factors of untreated and VREX treated samples. Result of mature biofilm disruption assay and down regulation of genes like fnbA, fnbB, clfA suggested that VREX targets these adhesin genes responsible for initial adherence. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of sesquiterpenes as a major constituent in VREX. Thus, the data of present study strengthen the ethnobotanical value of V. zizanioides and concludes that VREX contain bioactive molecules that have beneficial effect over the biofilm formation of MRSA and its clinical isolates.