In vitro analysis of monomer leaching in modern dental materials: CAD milled, printed, traditional heat-processed, and auto-polymerizing denture base resins.

PURPOSE: Denture fabrication has shifted from traditional heat-processed and auto-polymerizing materials to computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD-CAM) milled and printed materials. The monomer in traditional materials can induce an allergic reaction in some patients. With the rise in the edentulous population and increasing demand for the fabrication of dentures, these newer materials should be studied for monomer leaching. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ratio of residual monomer in materials being used for denture bases: CAD-milled polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), printed denture base resin, heat-processed PMMA, and auto-polymerizing PMMA comparatively. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Milled, printed, heat-activated, and auto-polymerizing denture base specimens (n = 3 for each group, each test run three times) were fabricated according to manufacturer recommendations. Specimens were first immersed in deuterated chloroform (CDCl3), a deuterated organic solvent, to evaluate monomer leaching and to observe physical properties of the materials. NMR spectroscopy was used to evaluate the dissolution of materials and residual monomer to crosslinked polymer ratios at 1, 4, and 9 days. A second group of specimens was then immersed in deuterium oxide (D2O) to evaluate if the residual monomers would leach out of the system. The solution was then analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for 1 month. The deuterated forms of chloroform (CDCl3) and water (D2O) were used to enable sample characterization by NMR. RESULTS: While the heat-processed, auto-polymerizing, and milled specimens possessed residual monomers, no significant monomer leaching was noted in the printed specimen, while immersed in CDCl3. Similarly, the printed specimen was most resistant to dissolution, as compared to the rest; dissolution of the specimen is indicative of little to no cross-linking. No detectable dissolution of monomer was seen when all specimens were immersed in D2O for up to 1 month. CONCLUSIONS: Residual monomers were not found in the printed denture material in this study in either CDCl3 or D2O, whereas CAD-milled and traditionally processed denture bases still have residual monomers within their respective systems when immersed in organic solvent. None of the specimens tested leached monomers into D2O.

Quantitative turbidimetric characterization of stabilized complex coacervate dispersions.

Stabilizing complex coacervate microdroplets is desirable due to their various applications, such as bioreactors, drug delivery vehicles, and encapsulants. Here, we present quantitative characterization of complex coacervate dispersion stability inferred by turbidimetry measurements. The stability of the dispersions is shown to be modulated by the concentrations of comb polyelectrolyte (cPE) stabilizers and salt. We demonstrate cPEs as effective stabilizers for complex coacervate dispersions independent of the chemistry or length of the constituent polyelectrolytes, salts, or preparation routes. By monitoring the temporal evolution of dispersion turbidity, we show that cPEs suppress microdroplet coalescence with minimal change in microdroplet sizes over 48 hours, even at salt concentrations up to 300 mM. The number density and average microdroplet size are shown to be controlled by varying the cPE and salt concentrations. Lastly, turbidity maps, akin to binodal phase maps, depict an expansion of the turbid two-phase region and an increase in the salt resistance of the coacervates upon the introduction of cPEs. The coacervate salt resistance is shown to increase by >3×, and this increase is maintained for up to 15 days, demonstrating that cPEs impart higher salt resistance over extended durations.

Block Polyelectrolyte Additives That Modulate the Viscoelasticity and Enhance the Printability of Gelatin Inks at Physiological Temperatures.

We demonstrate the utility of block polyelectrolyte (bPE) additives to enhance viscosity and resolve challenges with the three-dimensional (3D) printability of extrusion-based biopolymer inks. The addition of oppositely charged bPEs to solutions of photocurable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) results in complexation-driven self-assembly of the bPEs, leading to GelMA/bPE inks that are printable at physiological temperatures, representing stark improvements over GelMA inks that suffer from low viscosity at 37 °C, leading to low printability and poor structural stability. The hierarchical microstructure of the self-assemblies (either jammed micelles or 3D networks) formed by the oppositely charged bPEs, confirmed by small-angle X-ray scattering, is attributed to the enhancements in the shear strength and printability of the GelMA/bPE inks. Varying bPE concentration in the inks is shown to enable tunability of the rheological properties to meet the criteria of pre- and postextrusion flow characteristics for 3D printing, including prominent yielding behavior, strong shear thinning, and rapid recovery upon flow cessation. Moreover, the bPE self-assemblies also contribute to the robustness of the photo-cross-linked hydrogels; photo-cross-linked GelMA/bPE hydrogels are shown to exhibit higher shear strength than photo-cross-linked GelMA hydrogels. Last, the assessment of the printability of GelMA/bPE inks indicates excellent printing performance, including minimal swelling postextrusion, satisfactory retention of the filament shape upon deposition, and satisfactory shape fidelity of the various printed constructs. We envision this study to serve as a practical guide for the printing of bespoke extrusion inks where bPEs are used as scaffolds and viscosity enhancers that can be emulated in a range of photocurable precursors.

High-Strength Organic-Inorganic Composites with Superior Thermal Insulation and Acoustic Attenuation.

We demonstrate facile fabrication of highly filled, lightweight organic-inorganic composites comprising polyurethanes covalently linked with naturally occurring clinoptilolite microparticles. These polyurethane/clinoptilolite (PUC) composites are shown to mitigate particle aggregation usually observed in composites with high particle loadings and possess enhanced thermal insulation and acoustic attenuation compared with conventionally employed materials (e.g., drywall and gypsum). In addition to these functional properties, the PUC composites also possess flexural strengths and strain capacities comparable to and higher than ordinary Portland cement (OPC), respectively, while being ∼1.5× lighter than OPC. The porosity, density, and mechanical and functional properties of these composites are tuned by systematically varying their composition (diisocyanate, polyurethane, and inorganic contents) and the nature of the organic (reactivity and source of polyol) components. The fabrication process involves mild curing conditions and uses commonly available reagents (naturally occurring aluminosilicate particles, polyols, and diisocyanate), thereby making the process scalable. Finally, the composite properties are shown to be independent of the polyol source (virgin or recycled), underlining the generality of this approach for the scalable utilization of recycled polyols.

Foam film stratification, viscosity, and small-angle X-ray scattering of micellar SDS solutions over an extended concentration range (1< c/CMC < 75).

Ultrathin foam films (thickness, h < 100 nm) containing micelles undergo drainage via stratification manifested as coexisting thick-thin flat regions, nanoscopic non-flat topography, and the stepwise decrease in film thickness that yields a characteristic step-size. Most studies characterize the variation in step size and stratification kinetics in micellar foam films in a limited concentration range, c/CMC < 12.5 (c < 100 mM). Likewise, most scattering studies characterize micelle dimensions, intermicellar distance, and volume fraction in bulk aqueous SDS solutions in this limited concentration range. In this contribution, we show drainage via stratification can be observed for concentrations up to c/CMC < 75 (c < 600 mM). Understanding the stratification behavior of freely draining micellar films with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) concentration varying in the range 10 mM ≤ cSDS ≤ 600 mM is essential for molecular engineering, consumer product formulations, and controlling foaming in industrial processes. Here, we visualize and analyze nanoscopic thickness variations and transitions in stratifying foam films using Interferometry Digital Imaging Optical Microscopy (IDIOM) protocols. We compare step size obtained from foam stratification to micelle dimension, micelle volume fraction, and intermicellar distance obtained from small angle X-ray scattering studies. Even though the volume fraction increases and approaches 25% at c = 600 mM, the solution viscosity only increases by a factor of four compared to the solvent, consistent with the findings from both stratification and scattering studies. These comparisons allow us to explore the effect of micelle size, morphology, and intermicellar interactions on supramolecular oscillatory structural disjoining pressure, which influences the stratification behavior of draining foam films containing micelles under confinement.

Advances, Applications, and Emerging Opportunities in Electrostatic Hydrogels.

Polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) hydrogels, which self-assemble via complexation of oppositely charged block polymers, have recently risen to prominence owing to their unique characteristics such as hierarchical microstructure, tunable bulk properties, and the ability to precisely assimilate charged cargos (i.e., proteins and nucleic acids). Significant foundational research has delineated the structure-property relationship of PEC hydrogels for use in a wide range of applications. In this Perspective, we summarize key findings on the microstructure and bulk properties of PEC hydrogels and discuss how intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be tuned to create specifically tailored PEC hydrogels with desired properties. We highlight successful applications of PEC hydrogels while offering insight into strategies to overcome their shortcomings and elaborate on emerging opportunities in the field of electrostatic self-assemblies.

A user-friendly graphical user interface for dynamic light scattering data analysis.

Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a commonly used analytical tool for characterizing the size distribution of colloids in a dispersion or a solution. Typically, the intensity of a scattering produced from the sample at a fixed angle from an incident laser beam is recorded as a function of time and converted into time autocorrelation data, which can be inverted to estimate the distribution of colloid diffusivity to estimate the colloid size distribution. For polydisperse samples, this inversion problem, being a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind, is ill-posed and is typically handled using cumulant expansions or regularization methods. Here, we introduce a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) for analyzing the measured scattering intensity time autocorrelation data using both the cumulant expansion method and regularization methods, with the latter implemented using various commonly employed algorithms, including NNLS, CONTIN, REPES, and DYNALS. The GUI allows the user to modulate any and all of the fit parameters, offering extreme flexibility. Additionally, the GUI also enables a comparison of the size distributions generated by various algorithms and an evaluation of their performance. We present the fit results obtained from the GUI for model monomodal and bimodal dispersions to highlight the strengths, limitations, and scope of applicability of these algorithms for analyzing time autocorrelation data from DLS.

Electrosteric Control of the Aggregation and Yielding Behavior of Concentrated Portlandite Suspensions.

Portlandite (calcium hydroxide: CH: Ca(OH)2) suspensions aggregate spontaneously and form percolated fractal aggregate networks when dispersed in water. Consequently, the viscosity and yield stress of portlandite suspensions diverge at low particle loadings, adversely affecting their processability. Even though polycarboxylate ether (PCE)-based comb polyelectrolytes are routinely used to alter the particle dispersion state, water demand, and rheology of similar suspensions (e.g., ordinary portland cement suspensions) that feature a high pH and high ionic strength, their use to control portlandite suspension rheology has not been elucidated. This study combines adsorption isotherms and rheological measurements to elucidate the role of PCE composition (i.e., charge density, side chain length, and grafting density) in controlling the extent of PCE adsorption, particle flocculation, suspension yield stress, and thermal response of portlandite suspensions. We show that longer side-chain PCEs are more effective in affecting suspension viscosity and yield stress, in spite of their lower adsorption saturation limit and fractional adsorption. The superior steric hindrance induced by the longer side chain PCEs results in better efficacy in mitigating particle aggregation even at low dosages. However, when dosed at optimal dosages (i.e., a dosage that induces a dynamically equilibrated dispersion state of particle aggregates), different PCE-dosed portlandite suspensions exhibit identical fractal structuring and rheological behavior regardless of the side chain length. Furthermore, it is shown that the unusual evolution of the rheological response of portlandite suspensions with temperature can be tailored by adjusting the PCE dosage. The ability of PCEs to modulate the rheology of aggregating charged particle suspensions can be generally extended to any colloidal suspension with a strong screening of repulsive electrostatic interactions.

Transfer Learning Facilitates the Prediction of Polymer-Surface Adhesion Strength.

Machine learning (ML) accelerates the exploration of material properties and their links to the structure of the underlying molecules. In previous work [Shi et al. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2022, 14, 37161-37169.], ML models were applied to predict the adhesive free energy of polymer-surface interactions with high accuracy from the knowledge of the sequence data, demonstrating successes in inverse-design of polymer sequence for known surface compositions. While the method was shown to be successful in designing polymers for a known surface, extensive data sets were needed for each specific surface in order to train the surrogate models. Ideally, one should be able to infer information about similar surfaces without having to regenerate a full complement of adhesion data for each new case. In the current work, we demonstrate a transfer learning (TL) technique using a deep neural network to improve the accuracy of ML models trained on small data sets by pretraining on a larger database from a related system and fine-tuning the weights of all layers with a small amount of additional data. The shared knowledge from the pretrained model facilitates the prediction accuracy significantly on small data sets. We also explore the limits of database size on accuracy and the optimal tuning of network architecture and parameters for our learning tasks. While applied to a relatively simple coarse-grained (CG) polymer model, the general lessons of this study apply to detailed modeling studies and the broader problems of inverse materials design.

Salt Weakens Intermicellar Interactions and Structuring in Bulk Solutions and Foam Films.

Drainage via stratification in micellar foam films formulated with ionic surfactants shows dramatic changes on salt addition: both the step size and the number of steps in their stepwise thinning diminish. As the stratification process is governed by supramolecular oscillatory structural forces that arise due to confinement-induced structuring of micelles, it is apparent that salt addition reduces the magnitude, periodicity, and decay length of the oscillatory forces. In this contribution, we characterize the changes in micellar size, shape, and interactions on salt addition in bulk solutions using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to understand and elucidate the influence of salt on stratification in micellar foam films and, more broadly, on the oscillatory structural forces. Adding salt leads to a significant reduction in long-range correlations between micelles and smaller intermicellar distances. These effects manifest as a weakening of the primary peak of the structure factor, ascertained from SAXS spectra, accompanied by its shift to higher wave vectors. Weakened long-range correlations diminish the magnitude and periodicity of the oscillatory disjoining pressure leading to smaller step sizes, fewer steps, and a rich nanoscopic topography, due to the influence of disjoining pressure on the deformable interfaces. The step sizes in stratifying thin films and intermicellar distances in bulk solutions present incongruous values, implying an imperfect analogy with studies on charged nanoparticles with matched and salt concentration-independent values of measured interparticle distances that equal the periodicity of force-distance curves. We anticipate that our findings are significant for multicomponent soft and biological matter containing self-assembled supramolecular structures wherein screened Coulomb interactions govern the self-assembly, interfacial adsorption, interactions, dynamics, and stability.

Comb Polyelectrolytes Stabilize Complex Coacervate Microdroplet Dispersions.

Complex coacervate microdroplets are membraneless compartments that selectively sequester biological molecules from their surroundings and enhance bioreactions. Yet, their use as protocell models and bioreactors has been limited owing to a lack of feasible strategies to prevent their uncontrolled coalescence. Herein, we introduce an approach to mitigate coalescence of complex coacervate microdroplets using comb polyelectrolytes as stabilizers, creating complex coacervate dispersions with months-long stabilities. Tunability of microdroplet size and stability is achieved by the regulation of comb polyelectrolyte concentration and molecular weight. Importantly, the comb polyelectrolyte-stabilized coacervate microdroplets spontaneously sequester and retain proteins over extended periods. Moreover, enhanced catalytic activity of proteins and significant (up to 10-fold) acceleration of bioreactions are achieved in stabilized complex coacervate dispersions, even when stored for up to 48 h. Our findings are expected to expand the utility of complex coacervate microdroplets as artificial protocells, encapsulants, and bioreactors and also facilitate their use in pharmaceutical, agricultural, food, and cosmetics formulations.

Foam film stratification studies probe intermicellar interactions.

Ultrathin foam films containing supramolecular structures like micelles in bulk and adsorbed surfactant at the liquid-air interface undergo drainage via stratification. At a fixed surfactant concentration, the stepwise decrease in the average film thickness of a stratifying micellar film yields a characteristic step size that also describes the quantized thickness difference between coexisting thick-thin flat regions. Even though many published studies claim that step size equals intermicellar distance obtained using scattering from bulk solutions, we found no reports of a direct comparison between the two length scales. It is well established that step size is inversely proportional to the cubic root of surfactant concentration but cannot be estimated by adding micelle size to Debye length, as the latter is inversely proportional to the square root of surfactant concentration. In this contribution, we contrast the step size obtained from analysis of nanoscopic thickness variations and transitions in stratifying foam films using Interferometry Digital Imaging Optical Microscopy (IDIOM) protocols, that we developed, with the intermicellar distance obtained using small-angle X-ray scattering. We find that stratification driven by the confinement-induced layering of micelles within the liquid-air interfaces of a foam film provides a sensitive probe of non-DLVO (Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek) supramolecular oscillatory structural forces and micellar interactions.

SAXS methods for investigating macromolecular and self-assembled polyelectrolyte complexes.

Polyelectrolyte complexation is driven by associative interactions between oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, resulting in formation of a macroscopic polymer dense phase and a polymer dilute phase with applications in coatings, adhesives, and purification membranes. Beyond macroscale phase separation, precision polymer synthesis has enabled further development of polyelectrolyte complex (PEC)-based self-assembled micelles and hydrogels with applications in biotechnology. Interestingly, it has been suggested that mechanisms similar to polyelectrolyte complexation drive formation of biological condensates that play an indispensable role in cellular biogenesis. The formation pathways and functionality of these complex materials is dependent on the physical properties that are built into polymer structure and the resulting physical conformation in the dilute and dense phase. Scattering techniques have enabled in situ investigation of structure-function relationships in PEC materials that may address unresolved biophysical questions in cellular processes as well as catalyze the development of novel materials for diverse applications. We describe preparation of PEC materials with controlled polymer characteristics (length, blockiness, charge density), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques employed to probe appropriate length scales, and the data analysis routines from a practical standpoint for new users. This article deals with bulk complexes and not with the related, important and interesting area of non-equilibrium layer-by-layer assembly of polyelectrolytes.

Temperature-Induced Aggregation in Portlandite Suspensions.

Temperature is well known to affect the aggregation behavior of colloidal suspensions. This paper elucidates the temperature dependence of the rheology of portlandite (calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2) suspensions that feature a high ionic strength and a pH close to the particle's isoelectric point. In contrast to the viscosity of the suspending medium (saturated solution of Ca(OH)2 in water), the viscosity of Ca(OH)2 suspensions is found to increase with elevating temperature. This behavior is shown to arise from the temperature-induced aggregation of polydisperse Ca(OH)2 particulates because of the diminution of electrostatic repulsive forces with increasing temperature. The temperature dependence of the suspension viscosity is further shown to diminish with increasing particle volume fraction as a result of volumetric crowding and the formation of denser fractal structures in the suspension. Significantly, the temperature-dependent rheological response of suspensions is shown to be strongly affected by the suspending medium's properties, including ionic strength and ion valence, which affect aggregation kinetics. These outcomes provide new insights into aggregation processes that affect the temperature-dependent rheology of portlandite-based and similar suspensions that feature strong charge screening behavior.

Dispersing nano- and micro-sized portlandite particulates via electrosteric exclusion at short screening lengths.

In spite of their high surface charge (zeta potential ζ = +34 mV), aqueous suspensions of portlandite (calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2) exhibit a strong tendency to aggregate, and thereby present unstable suspensions. While a variety of commercial dispersants seek to modify the suspension stability and rheology (e.g., yield stress, viscosity), it remains unclear how the performance of electrostatically and/or electrosterically based additives is affected in aqueous environments having either a high ionic strength and/or a pH close to the particle's isoelectric point (IEP). We show that the high native ionic strength (pH ≈ 12.6, IEP: pH ≈ 13) of saturated portlandite suspensions strongly screens electrostatic forces (Debye length: κ-1 = 1.2 nm). As a result, coulombic repulsion alone is insufficient to mitigate particle aggregation and affect rheology. However, a longer-range geometrical particle-particle exclusion that arises from electrosteric hindrance caused by the introduction of comb polyelectrolyte dispersants is very effective at altering the rheological properties and fractal structuring of suspensions. As a result, comb-like dispersants that stretch into the solvent reduce the suspension's yield stress by 5× at similar levels of adsorption as compared to linear dispersants, thus enhancing the critical solid loading (i.e., at which jamming occurs) by 1.4×. Significantly, the behavior of diverse dispersants is found to be inherently related to the thickness of the adsorbed polymer layer on particle surfaces. These outcomes inform the design of dispersants for concentrated suspensions that present strong charge screening behavior.

Time-Ionic Strength Superposition: A Unified Description of Chain Relaxation Dynamics in Polyelectrolyte Complexes.

Addition of salt speeds up chain relaxation dynamics in polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs), and time-salt superposition (TSS) approaches to describe the linear viscoelastic response of PECs are well-established. However, TSS is carried out at fixed initial polyelectrolyte concentrations, and varying the initial polyelectrolyte concentration results in distinct TSS master curves. In this contribution, we show that accounting for the small ions that accompany the oppositely charged polyelectrolyte chains (designated as accompanying counterions) enables assimilation of these distinct TSS master curves into a single universal master curve. This approach, that we christen as time-ionic strength superposition (TISS), enables a unified description of the PEC viscoelastic response in terms of the solution ionic strength, that accounts for both the accompanying counterions and the added ions, and underlines the dynamic similarities between PECs and semidilute polymer solutions. The sticky electrostatic associations among the oppositely charged chains, however, contribute additional relaxation modes in the PECs. We demonstrate that the time scales of these additional relaxation modes are described quantitatively by a modified sticky Rouse model that accounts for the influence of solution ionic strength on electrostatic screening and chain friction.

Protein-Polyelectrolyte Complexes and Micellar Assemblies.

In this review, we highlight the recent progress in our understanding of the structure, properties and applications of protein-polyelectrolyte complexes in both bulk and micellar assemblies. Protein-polyelectrolyte complexes form the basis of the genetic code, enable facile protein purification, and have emerged as enterprising candidates for simulating protocellular environments and as efficient enzymatic bioreactors. Such complexes undergo self-assembly in bulk due to a combined influence of electrostatic interactions and entropy gains from counterion release. Diversifying the self-assembly by incorporation of block polyelectrolytes has further enabled fabrication of protein-polyelectrolyte complex micelles that are multifunctional carriers for therapeutic targeted delivery of proteins such as enzymes and antibodies. We discuss research efforts focused on the structure, properties and applications of protein-polyelectrolyte complexes in both bulk and micellar assemblies, along with the influences of amphoteric nature of proteins accompanying patchy distribution of charges leading to unique phenomena including multiple complexation windows and complexation on the wrong side of the isoelectric point.

Effect of temperature on the structure and dynamics of triblock polyelectrolyte gels.

Triblock polyelectrolyte gels were characterized by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The oppositely charged end blocks self-assemble into polyelectrolyte complex cores, while the neutral poly(ethylene oxide) middle block bridges adjacent cores. The size of the polyelectrolyte complex core does not change with temperature. However, the neutral middle block displays a temperature-dependent conformation. The liquid-like order of the complex core within the gel phase leads to stretched bridging chains that approach their unperturbed dimensions with increasing concentration. A stretch ratio for bridging chains was defined as the ratio between stretched and unperturbed dimensions. A further reduction in the chain stretching occurs with increasing temperature due to solvent quality. DLS observes multiple modes consistent with a collective diffusion (fast mode) and diffusion of clusters (slow mode). The dynamics of these clusters are at length scales associated with the SANS excess scattering, but with relaxation time near the crossover frequency observed by mechanical spectroscopy.

Partitioning and Enhanced Self-Assembly of Actin in Polypeptide Coacervates.

Biomolecules exist and function in cellular microenvironments that control their spatial organization, local concentration, and biochemical reactivity. Due to the complexity of native cytoplasm, the development of artificial bioreactors and cellular mimics to compartmentalize, concentrate, and control the local physico-chemical properties is of great interest. Here, we employ self-assembling polypeptide coacervates to explore the partitioning of the ubiquitous cytoskeletal protein actin into liquid polymer-rich droplets. We find that actin spontaneously partitions into coacervate droplets and is enriched by up to ∼30-fold. Actin polymerizes into micrometer-long filaments and, in contrast to the globular protein BSA, these filaments localize predominately to the droplet periphery. We observe up to a 50-fold enhancement in the actin filament assembly rate inside coacervate droplets, consistent with the enrichment of actin within the coacervate phase. Together these results suggest that coacervates can serve as a versatile platform in which to localize and enrich biomolecules to study their reactivity in physiological environments.

Structure and rheology of polyelectrolyte complex coacervates.

Scattering investigations of the structure and chain conformations, and the rheological properties of polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) comprising model polyelectrolytes are presented. The use of charged polypeptides - (poly)-lysine and (poly)-glutamic acid with identical backbones allowed for facile tuning of the system parameters, including chain length, side-chain functionality, and chirality. Systematic studies using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) of liquid PEC coacervates revealed a physical description of these materials as strongly screened semidilute polyelectrolyte solutions comprising oppositely charged chains. At the same time, solid PECs were found to be composed of hydrogen-bonding driven stiff ladder-like structures. While the coacervates behaved akin to semidilute polyelectrolyte solutions upon addition of salt, the solids were largely unaffected by it. Rheology measurements of PEC coacervates revealed a terminal relaxation regime, with an unusual plateauing of the storage modulus at low oscillation frequencies. The plateau may be ascribed to a combination of instrumental limitations and the long-range electrostatic interactions contributing to weak energy storage modes. Excellent superposition of the dynamic moduli was achieved by a time-salt superposition. The shift factors, however, varied more strongly than previously reported with added salt concentration.