Pathogen lifestyle determines host genetic signature of quantitative disease resistance loci in oilseed rape (Brassica napus).

KEY MESSAGE: Using associative transcriptomics, our study identifies genes conferring resistance to four diverse fungal pathogens in crops, emphasizing key genetic determinants of multi-pathogen resistance. Crops are affected by several pathogens, but these are rarely studied in parallel to identify common and unique genetic factors controlling diseases. Broad-spectrum quantitative disease resistance (QDR) is desirable for crop breeding as it confers resistance to several pathogen species. Here, we use associative transcriptomics (AT) to identify candidate gene loci associated with Brassica napus constitutive QDR to four contrasting fungal pathogens: Alternaria brassicicola, Botrytis cinerea, Pyrenopeziza brassicae, and Verticillium longisporum. We did not identify any shared loci associated with broad-spectrum QDR to fungal pathogens with contrasting lifestyles. Instead, we observed QDR dependent on the lifestyle of the pathogen-hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens had distinct QDR responses and associated loci, including some loci associated with early immunity. Furthermore, we identify a genomic deletion associated with resistance to V. longisporum and potentially broad-spectrum QDR. This is the first time AT has been used for several pathosystems simultaneously to identify host genetic loci involved in broad-spectrum QDR. We highlight constitutive expressed candidate loci for broad-spectrum QDR with no antagonistic effects on susceptibility to the other pathogens studies as candidates for crop breeding. In conclusion, this study represents an advancement in our understanding of broad-spectrum QDR in B. napus and is a significant resource for the scientific community.

Transcriptomics of temperature-sensitive R gene-mediated resistance identifies a WAKL10 protein interaction network.

Understanding temperature-sensitivity of R gene-mediated resistance against apoplastic pathogens is important for sustainable food production in the face of global warming. Here, we show that resistance of Brassica napus cotyledons against Leptosphaeria maculans was temperature-sensitive in introgression line Topas-Rlm7 but temperature-resilient in Topas-Rlm4. A set of 1,646 host genes was differentially expressed in Topas-Rlm4 and Topas-Rlm7 in response to temperature. Amongst these were three WAKL10 genes, including BnaA07g20220D, representing the temperature-sensitive Rlm7-1 allele and Rlm4. Network analysis identified a WAKL10 protein interaction cluster specifically for Topas-Rlm7 at 25 °C. Diffusion analysis of the Topas-Rlm4 network identified WRKY22 as a putative regulatory target of the ESCRT-III complex-associated protein VPS60.1, which belongs to the WAKL10 protein interaction community. Combined enrichment analysis of gene ontology terms considering gene expression and network data linked vesicle-mediated transport to defence. Thus, dysregulation of effector-triggered defence in Topas-Rlm7 disrupts vesicle-associated resistance against the apoplastic pathogen L. maculans.

Novel gene loci associated with susceptibility or cryptic quantitative resistance to Pyrenopeziza brassicae in Brassica napus.

KEY MESSAGE: Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) controls the association of the light leaf spot pathogen with Brassica napus; four QDR loci that were in linkage disequilibrium and eight gene expression markers were identified. Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) can provide durable control of pathogens in crops in contrast to resistance (R) gene-mediated resistance which can break down due to pathogen evolution. QDR is therefore a desirable trait in crop improvement, but little is known about the causative genes, and so it is difficult to incorporate into breeding programmes. Light leaf spot, caused by Pyrenopeziza brassicae, is an important disease of oilseed rape (canola, Brassica napus). To identify new QDR gene loci, we used a high-throughput screening pathosystem with P. brassicae on 195 lines of B. napus combined with an association transcriptomics platform. We show that all resistance against P. brassicae was associated with QDR and not R gene-mediated. We used genome-wide association analysis with an improved B. napus population structure to reveal four gene loci significantly (P = 0.0001) associated with QDR in regions showing linkage disequilibrium. On chromosome A09, enhanced resistance was associated with heterozygosity for a cytochrome P450 gene co-localising with a previously described locus for seed glucosinolate content. In addition, eight significant gene expression markers with a false discovery rate of 0.001 were associated with QDR against P. brassicae. For seven of these, expression was positively correlated with resistance, whereas for one, a HXXXD-type acyl-transferase, negative correlation indicated a potential susceptibility gene. The study identifies novel QDR loci for susceptibility and resistance, including novel cryptic QDR genes associated with heterozygosity, that will inform future crop improvement.

Influence of Elevated Temperatures on Resistance Against Phoma Stem Canker in Oilseed Rape.

Cultivar resistance is an important tool in controlling pathogen-related diseases in agricultural crops. As temperatures increase due to global warming, temperature-resilient disease resistance will play an important role in crop protection. However, the mechanisms behind the temperature-sensitivity of the disease resistance response are poorly understood in crop species and little is known about the effect of elevated temperatures on quantitative disease resistance. Here, we investigated the effect of temperature increase on the quantitative resistance of Brassica napus against Leptosphaeria maculans. Field experiments and controlled environment inoculation assays were done to determine the influence of temperature on R gene-mediated and quantitative resistance against L. maculans; of specific interest was the impact of high summer temperatures on the severity of phoma stem canker. Field experiments were run for three consecutive growing seasons at various sites in England and France using twelve winter oilseed rape breeding lines or cultivars with or without R genes and/or quantitative resistance. Stem inoculation assays were done under controlled environment conditions with four cultivars/breeding lines, using avirulent and virulent L. maculans isolates, to determine if an increase in ambient temperature reduces the efficacy of the resistance. High maximum June temperature was found to be related to phoma stem canker severity. No temperature effect on stem canker severity was found for the cultivar ES Astrid (with only quantitative resistance with no known R genes). However, in the controlled environmental conditions, the cultivar ES Astrid had significantly smaller amounts of necrotic tissue at 20°C than at 25°C. This suggests that, under a sustained temperature of 25°C, the efficacy of quantitative resistance is reduced. Findings from this study show that temperature-resilient quantitative resistance is currently available in some oilseed cultivars and that efficacy of quantitative resistance is maintained at increased temperature but not when these elevated temperatures are sustained for a long period.

Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping for Resistance Against Pyrenopeziza brassicae Derived From a Brassica napus Secondary Gene Pool.

Use of host resistance is the most economical and environmentally safe way to control light leaf spot disease of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). The causal organism of light leaf spot, Pyrenopeziza brassicae, is one of the most economically damaging pathogens of oilseed rape in the United Kingdom and it is considered to have a high potential to evolve due to its mixed reproduction system and airborne ascospores. This necessitates diverse sources of host resistance, which are inadequate at present to minimize yield losses caused by this disease. To address this, we screened a doubled haploid (DH) population of oilseed rape, derived from a secondary gene pool (ancestral genomes) of B. napus for the introgression of resistance against P. brassicae. DH lines were phenotyped using controlled-environment and glasshouse experiments with P. brassicae populations obtained from three different geographic locations in the United Kingdom. Selected DH lines with different levels of resistance were further studied in a controlled-environment experiment using both visual (scanning electron microscope - SEM) and molecular (quantitative PCR) assessment methods to understand the mode/s of host resistance. There was a clear phenotypic variation for resistance against P. brassicae in this DH population. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis identified four QTLs with moderate to large effects, which were located on linkage groups C1, C6, and C9. Of these, the QTL on the linkage group C1 appeared to have a major effect on limiting P. brassicae asexual sporulation. Study of the sub-cuticular growth phase of P. brassicae using qPCR and SEM showed that the pathogen was able to infect and colonise both resistant and susceptible Q DH lines and control B. napus cultivars. However, the rate of increase of pathogen biomass was significantly smaller in resistant lines, suggesting that the resistance segregating in this DH population limits colonisation/sporulation by the pathogen rather than eliminating the pathogen. Resistance QTLs identified in this study provide a useful resource for breeding cultivar resistance for effective control of light leaf spot and form a starting point for functional identification of the genes controlling resistance against P. brassicae that can contribute to our knowledge on mechanisms of partial resistance of crops against pathogens.

Genomic evidence for genes encoding leucine-rich repeat receptors linked to resistance against the eukaryotic extra- and intracellular Brassica napus pathogens Leptosphaeria maculans and Plasmodiophora brassicae.

Genes coding for nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptors (NLRs) control resistance against intracellular (cell-penetrating) pathogens. However, evidence for a role of genes coding for proteins with LRR domains in resistance against extracellular (apoplastic) fungal pathogens is limited. Here, the distribution of genes coding for proteins with eLRR domains but lacking kinase domains was determined for the Brassica napus genome. Predictions of signal peptide and transmembrane regions divided these genes into 184 coding for receptor-like proteins (RLPs) and 121 coding for secreted proteins (SPs). Together with previously annotated NLRs, a total of 720 LRR genes were found. Leptosphaeria maculans-induced expression during a compatible interaction with cultivar Topas differed between RLP, SP and NLR gene families; NLR genes were induced relatively late, during the necrotrophic phase of pathogen colonization. Seven RLP, one SP and two NLR genes were found in Rlm1 and Rlm3/Rlm4/Rlm7/Rlm9 loci for resistance against L. maculans on chromosome A07 of B. napus. One NLR gene at the Rlm9 locus was positively selected, as was the RLP gene on chromosome A10 with LepR3 and Rlm2 alleles conferring resistance against L. maculans races with corresponding effectors AvrLm1 and AvrLm2, respectively. Known loci for resistance against L. maculans (extracellular hemi-biotrophic fungus), Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (necrotrophic fungus) and Plasmodiophora brassicae (intracellular, obligate biotrophic protist) were examined for presence of RLPs, SPs and NLRs in these regions. Whereas loci for resistance against P. brassicae were enriched for NLRs, no such signature was observed for the other pathogens. These findings demonstrate involvement of (i) NLR genes in resistance against the intracellular pathogen P. brassicae and a putative NLR gene in Rlm9-mediated resistance against the extracellular pathogen L. maculans.

TGA2 signaling in response to reactive electrophile species is not dependent on cysteine modification of TGA2.

Reactive electrophile species (RES), including prostaglandins, phytoprostanes and 12-oxo phytodienoic acid (OPDA), activate detoxification responses in plants and animals. However, the pathways leading to the activation of defense reactions related to abiotic or biotic stress as a function of RES formation, accumulation or treatment are poorly understood in plants. Here, the thiol-modification of proteins, including the RES-activated basic region/leucine zipper transcription factor TGA2, was studied. TGA2 contains a single cysteine residue (Cys186) that was covalently modified by reactive cyclopentenones but not required for induction of detoxification genes in response to OPDA or prostaglandin A1. Activation of the glutathione-S-transferase 6 (GST6) promoter was responsive to cyclopentenones but not to unreactive cyclopentanones, including jasmonic acid suggesting that thiol reactivity of RES is important to activate the TGA2-dependent signaling pathway resulting in GST6 activation We show that RES modify thiols in numerous proteins in vivo, however, thiol reactivity alone appears not to be sufficient for biological activity as demonstrated by the failure of several membrane permeable thiol reactive reagents to activate the GST6 promoter.

Azole sensitivity in Leptosphaeria pathogens of oilseed rape: the role of lanosterol 14α-demethylase.

Lanosterol 14-α demethylase is a key enzyme intermediating the biosynthesis of ergosterol in fungi, and the target of azole fungicides. Studies have suggested that Leptosphaeria maculans and L. biglobosa, the causal agents of phoma stem canker on oilseed rape, differ in their sensitivity to some azoles, which could be driving pathogen frequency change in crops. Here we used CYP51 protein modelling and heterologous expression to determine whether there are interspecific differences at the target-site level. Moreover, we provide an example of intrinsic sensitivity differences exhibited by both Leptosphaeria spp. in vitro and in planta. Comparison of homologous protein models identified highly conserved residues, particularly at the azole binding site, and heterologous expression of LmCYP51B and LbCYP51B, with fungicide sensitivity testing of the transformants, suggests that both proteins are similarly sensitive to azole fungicides flusilazole, prothioconazole-desthio and tebuconazole. Fungicide sensitivity testing on isolates shows that they sometimes have a minor difference in sensitivity in vitro and in planta. These results suggest that azole fungicides remain a useful component of integrated phoma stem canker control in the UK due to their effectiveness on both Leptosphaeria spp. Other factors, such as varietal resistance or climate, may be driving observed frequency changes between species.

Review of combinations of experimental and computational techniques to identify and understand genes involved in innate immunity and effector-triggered defence.

The innate immune system includes a first layer of defence that recognises conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns that are essential for microbial fitness. Resistance (R) gene-based recognition of pathogen effectors, which function in modulation or avoidance of host immunity, activates a second layer of plant defence. In this review, experimental and computational techniques are considered to improve understanding of the plant immune system. Biocomputation contributes to discovery of the molecular genetic basis of host resistance against pathogens. Sequenced genomes have been used to identify R genes in plants. Resistance gene enrichment sequencing based on conserved protein domains has increased the number of R genes with nucleotide-binding site and leucine-rich repeat domains. Network analysis will contribute to an improved understanding of the innate immune system and identify novel genes for partial disease resistance. Machine learning algorithms are expected to become important in defining aspects of the immune system that are less well characterised, including identification of R genes that lack conserved protein domains.

Characterization of the Arabidopsis thaliana 2-Cys peroxiredoxin interactome.

Peroxiredoxins are ubiquitous thiol-dependent peroxidases for which chaperone and signaling roles have been reported in various types of organisms in recent years. In plants, the peroxidase function of the two typical plastidial 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (2-Cys PRX A and B) has been highlighted while the other functions, particularly in ROS-dependent signaling pathways, are still elusive notably due to the lack of knowledge of interacting partners. Using an ex vivo approach based on co-immunoprecipitation of leaf extracts from Arabidopsis thaliana wild-type and mutant plants lacking 2-Cys PRX expression followed by mass spectrometry-based proteomics, 158 proteins were found associated with 2-Cys PRXs. Already known partners like thioredoxin-related electron donors (Chloroplastic Drought-induced Stress Protein of 32kDa, Atypical Cysteine Histidine-rich Thioredoxin 2) and enzymes involved in chlorophyll synthesis (Protochlorophyllide OxidoReductase B) or carbon metabolism (Fructose-1,6-BisPhosphatase) were identified, validating the relevance of the approach. Bioinformatic and bibliographic analyses allowed the functional classification of the identified proteins and revealed that more than 40% are localized in plastids. The possible roles of plant 2-Cys PRXs in redox signaling pathways are discussed in relation with the functions of the potential partners notably those involved in redox homeostasis, carbon and amino acid metabolisms as well as chlorophyll biosynthesis.

2-cysteine peroxiredoxins and thylakoid ascorbate peroxidase create a water-water cycle that is essential to protect the photosynthetic apparatus under high light stress conditions.

Different peroxidases, including 2-cysteine (2-Cys) peroxiredoxins (PRXs) and thylakoid ascorbate peroxidase (tAPX), have been proposed to be involved in the water-water cycle (WWC) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-mediated signaling in plastids. We generated an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) double-mutant line deficient in the two plastid 2-Cys PRXs (2-Cys PRX A and B, 2cpa 2cpb) and a triple mutant deficient in 2-Cys PRXs and tAPX (2cpa 2cpb tapx). In contrast to wild-type and tapx single-knockout plants, 2cpa 2cpb double-knockout plants showed an impairment of photosynthetic efficiency and became photobleached under high light (HL) growth conditions. In addition, double-mutant plants also generated elevated levels of superoxide anion radicals, H2O2, and carbonylated proteins but lacked anthocyanin accumulation under HL stress conditions. Under HL conditions, 2-Cys PRXs seem to be essential in maintaining the WWC, whereas tAPX is dispensable. By comparison, this HL-sensitive phenotype was more severe in 2cpa 2cpb tapx triple-mutant plants, indicating that tAPX partially compensates for the loss of functional 2-Cys PRXs by mutation or inactivation by overoxidation. In response to HL, H2O2- and photooxidative stress-responsive marker genes were found to be dramatically up-regulated in 2cpa 2cpb tapx but not 2cpa 2cpb mutant plants, suggesting that HL-induced plastid to nucleus retrograde photooxidative stress signaling takes place after loss or inactivation of the WWC enzymes 2-Cys PRX A, 2-Cys PRX B, and tAPX.

A tandem affinity purification tag of TGA2 for isolation of interacting proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Tandem affinity purification (TAP) tagging provides a powerful tool for isolating interacting proteins in vivo. TAP-tag purification offers particular advantages for the identification of stimulus-induced protein interactions. Type II bZIP transcription factors (TGA2, TGA5 and TGA6) play key roles in pathways that control salicylic acid, ethylene, xenobiotic and reactive oxylipin signaling. Although proteins interacting with these transcription factors have been identified through genetic and yeast 2-hybrid screening, others are still elusive. We have therefore generated a C-terminal TAP-tag of TGA2 to isolate additional proteins that interact with this transcription factor. Three lines most highly expressing TAP-tagged TGA2 were functional in that they partially complemented reactive oxylipin-responsive gene expression in a tga2 tga5 tga6 triple mutant. TAP-tagged TGA2 in the most strongly overexpressing line was proteolytically less stable than in the other 2 lines. Only this overexpressing line could be used in a 2-step purification process, resulting in isolation of co-purifying bands of larger molecular weight than TGA2. TAP-tagged TGA2 was used to pull down NPR1, a protein known to interact with this transcription factor. Mass spectrometry was used to identify peptides that co-purified with TAP-tagged TGA2. Having generated this TGA2 TAP-tag line will therefore be an asset to researchers interested in stimulus-induced signal transduction processes.

Effector-triggered defence against apoplastic fungal pathogens.

R gene-mediated host resistance against apoplastic fungal pathogens is not adequately explained by the terms pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) or effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Therefore, it is proposed that this type of resistance is termed 'effector-triggered defence' (ETD). Unlike PTI and ETI, ETD is mediated by R genes encoding cell surface-localised receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that engage the receptor-like kinase SOBIR1. In contrast to this extracellular recognition, ETI is initiated by intracellular detection of pathogen effectors. ETI is usually associated with fast, hypersensitive host cell death, whereas ETD often triggers host cell death only after an elapsed period of endophytic pathogen growth. In this opinion, we focus on ETD responses against foliar fungal pathogens of crops.

TGA transcription factors and jasmonate-independent COI1 signalling regulate specific plant responses to reactive oxylipins.

Jasmonates and phytoprostanes are oxylipins that regulate stress responses and diverse physiological and developmental processes. 12-Oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA) and phytoprostanes are structurally related electrophilic cyclopentenones, which activate similar gene expression profiles that are for the most part different from the action of the cyclopentanone jasmonic acid (JA) and its biologically active amino acid conjugates. Whereas JA-isoleucine signals through binding to COI1, the bZIP transcription factors TGA2, TGA5, and TGA6 are involved in regulation of gene expression in response to phytoprostanes. Here root growth inhibition and target gene expression were compared after treatment with JA, OPDA, or phytoprostanes in mutants of the COI1/MYC2 pathway and in different TGA factor mutants. Inhibition of root growth by phytoprostanes was dependent on COI1 but independent of jasmonate biosynthesis. In contrast, phytoprostane-responsive gene expression was strongly dependent on TGA2, TGA5, and TGA6, but not dependent on COI1, MYC2, TGA1, and TGA4. Different mutant and overexpressing lines were used to determine individual contributions of TGA factors to cyclopentenone-responsive gene expression. Whereas OPDA-induced expression of the cytochrome P450 gene CYP81D11 was primarily regulated by TGA2 and TGA5, the glutathione S-transferase gene GST25 and the OPDA reductase gene OPR1 were regulated by TGA5 and TGA6, but less so by TGA2. These results support the model that phytoprostanes and OPDA regulate differently (i) growth responses, which are COI1 dependent but jasmonate independent; and (ii) lipid stress responses, which are strongly dependent on TGA2, TGA5, and TGA6. Identification of molecular components in cyclopentenone signalling provides an insight into novel oxylipin signal transduction pathways.

Jasmonate-dependent and COI1-independent defense responses against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in Arabidopsis thaliana: auxin is part of COI1-independent defense signaling.

The jasmonate receptor COI1 is known to facilitate plant defense responses against necrotrophic pathogens, including the ascomycete Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. However, it is not known to what extent jasmonates contribute to defense nor have COI1-independent defense pathways been sufficiently characterized. Here we show that the susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum of the aos mutant, deficient in biosynthesis of jasmonic acid (JA) and its precursor 12-oxophytadienoic acid, was elevated to a level reminiscent of that of hypersusceptible coi1 mutants. In contrast, susceptibility of the JA-deficient opr3 mutant was comparable with that of the wild type. A set of 99 genes responded similarly to infection with S. sclerotiorum in wild-type and coi1 mutant leaves. Expression of this COI1-independent gene set correlated with known differences in gene expression between wild-type plants and a mutant in the transcriptional repressor auxin response factor 2 (arf2). Susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum was reduced in two arf2 mutants early during infection, implicating ARF2 as a negative regulator of defense responses against this pathogen. Hypersusceptibility of an axr1 mutant to S. sclerotiorum confirmed the contribution of auxin action to defense responses against this fungal pathogen.

Resistance of Malus domestica fruit to Botrytis cinerea depends on endogenous ethylene biosynthesis.

The plant hormone ethylene regulates fruit ripening, other developmental processes, and a subset of defense responses. Here, we show that 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACS)-silenced apple (Malus domestica) fruit that express a sense construct of ACS were more susceptible to Botrytis cinerea than untransformed apple, demonstrating that ethylene strengthens fruit resistance to B. cinerea infection. Because ethylene response factors (ERFs) are known to contribute to resistance against B. cinerea via the ethylene-signaling pathway, we cloned four ERF cDNAs from fruit of M. domestica: MdERF3, -4, -5, and -6. Expression of all four MdERF mRNAs was ethylene dependent and induced by wounding or by B. cinerea infection. B. cinerea infection suppressed rapid induction of wound-related MdERF expression. MdERF3 was the only mRNA induced by wounding and B. cinerea infection in ACS-suppressed apple fruit, although its induction was reduced compared with wild-type apple. Promoter regions of all four MdERF genes were cloned and putative cis-elements were identified in each promoter. Transient expression of MdERF3 in tobacco increased expression of the GCC-box containing gene chitinase 48.

Role of camalexin, indole glucosinolates, and side chain modification of glucosinolate-derived isothiocyanates in defense of Arabidopsis against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Plant secondary metabolites are known to facilitate interactions with a variety of beneficial and detrimental organisms, yet the contribution of specific metabolites to interactions with fungal pathogens is poorly understood. Here we show that, with respect to aliphatic glucosinolate-derived isothiocyanates, toxicity against the pathogenic ascomycete Sclerotinia sclerotiorum depends on side chain structure. Genes associated with the formation of the secondary metabolites camalexin and glucosinolate were induced in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves challenged with the necrotrophic pathogen S. sclerotiorum. Unlike S. sclerotiorum, the closely related ascomycete Botrytis cinerea was not identified to induce genes associated with aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis in pathogen-challenged leaves. Mutant plant lines deficient in camalexin, indole, or aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis were hypersusceptible to S. sclerotiorum, among them the myb28 mutant, which has a regulatory defect resulting in decreased production of long-chained aliphatic glucosinolates. The antimicrobial activity of aliphatic glucosinolate-derived isothiocyanates was dependent on side chain elongation and modification, with 8-methylsulfinyloctyl isothiocyanate being most toxic to S. sclerotiorum. This information is important for microbial associations with cruciferous host plants and for metabolic engineering of pathogen defenses in cruciferous plants that produce short-chained aliphatic glucosinolates.

Plant defensins: defense, development and application.

Plant defensins are small, highly stable, cysteine-rich peptides that constitute a part of the innate immune system primarily directed against fungal pathogens. Biological activities reported for plant defensins include antifungal activity, antibacterial activity, proteinase inhibitory activity and insect amylase inhibitory activity. Plant defensins have been shown to inhibit infectious diseases of humans and to induce apoptosis in a human pathogen. Transgenic plants overexpressing defensins are strongly resistant to fungal pathogens. Based on recent studies, some plant defensins are not merely toxic to microbes but also have roles in regulating plant growth and development.

A defensin from tomato with dual function in defense and development.

Defensins are antimicrobial peptides that are part of the innate immune system, contributing to the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Defensins and defensin-like peptides are functionally diverse, disrupting microbial membranes and acting as ligands for cellular recognition and signaling. Here we show that the tomato defensin DEF2 is expressed during early flower development. Defensin mRNA abundance, peptide expression and processing are differentially regulated in developing flowers. Antisense suppression or constitutive overexpression of DEF2 reduces pollen viability and seed production. Furthermore, overexpression of DEF2 pleiotropically alters the growth of various organs and enhances foliar resistance to the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Partially purified extracts from leaves of a DEF2-overexpressing line inhibited tip growth of B. cinerea. Besides providing insights into regulation of defensin expression, these data demonstrate that plant defensins, like their animal counterparts, can assume multiple functions related to defense and development.

Mapping of loci from Solanum lycopersicoides conferring resistance or susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea in tomato.

Cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, syn. Lycopersicon esculentum) is susceptible to the necrotrophic ascomycete and causal agent of gray mold, Botrytis cinerea. Resistance to this fungal pathogen is elevated in wild relatives of tomato, including Solanum lycopersicoides. An introgression line population (IL) containing chromosomal segments of S. lycopersicoides within the background of tomato cv. VF36 was used to screen the genome for foliar resistance and susceptibility to B. cinerea. Based on this screen, putative quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified, five for resistance and two for susceptibility. Four resistance QTL decreased infection frequency while the fifth reduced lesion diameter. One susceptibility QTL increased infection frequency whereas the other increased lesion diameter. Overlapping chromosomal segments provided strong evidence for partial resistance on chromosomes 1 and 9 and for elevated susceptibility on chromosome 11. Segregation analysis confirmed the major resistance QTL on the long arm of chromosome 1 and susceptibility on chromosome 11. Linkage of partial resistance to chromosome 9 could not be confirmed. The usefulness of these data for resistance breeding and for map-based cloning of foliar resistance to B. cinerea is discussed.