The fidelity of transcription in human cells.

To determine the error rate of transcription in human cells, we analyzed the transcriptome of H1 human embryonic stem cells with a circle-sequencing approach that allows for high-fidelity sequencing of the transcriptome. These experiments identified approximately 100,000 errors distributed over every major RNA species in human cells. Our results indicate that different RNA species display different error rates, suggesting that human cells prioritize the fidelity of some RNAs over others. Cross-referencing the errors that we detected with various genetic and epigenetic features of the human genome revealed that the in vivo error rate in human cells changes along the length of a transcript and is further modified by genetic context, repetitive elements, epigenetic markers, and the speed of transcription. Our experiments further suggest that BRCA1, a DNA repair protein implicated in breast cancer, has a previously unknown role in the suppression of transcription errors. Finally, we analyzed the distribution of transcription errors in multiple tissues of a new mouse model and found that they occur preferentially in neurons, compared to other cell types. These observations lend additional weight to the idea that transcription errors play a key role in the progression of various neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease.

A Cre Transcription Fidelity Reporter Identifies GreA as a Major RNA Proofreading Factor in Escherichia coli.

We made a coupled genetic reporter that detects rare transcription misincorporation errors to measure RNA polymerase transcription fidelity in Escherichia coli Using this reporter, we demonstrated in vivo that the transcript cleavage factor GreA, but not GreB, is essential for proofreading of a transcription error where a riboA has been misincorporated instead of a riboG. A greA mutant strain had more than a 100-fold increase in transcription errors relative to wild-type or a greB mutant. However, overexpression of GreB in ΔgreA cells reduced the misincorporation errors to wild-type levels, demonstrating that GreB at high concentration could substitute for GreA in RNA proofreading activity in vivo.

RNA polymerase II senses obstruction in the DNA minor groove via a conserved sensor motif.

RNA polymerase II (pol II) encounters numerous barriers during transcription elongation, including DNA strand breaks, DNA lesions, and nucleosomes. Pyrrole-imidazole (Py-Im) polyamides bind to the minor groove of DNA with programmable sequence specificity and high affinity. Previous studies suggest that Py-Im polyamides can prevent transcription factor binding, as well as interfere with pol II transcription elongation. However, the mechanism of pol II inhibition by Py-Im polyamides is unclear. Here we investigate the mechanism of how these minor-groove binders affect pol II transcription elongation. In the presence of site-specifically bound Py-Im polyamides, we find that the pol II elongation complex becomes arrested immediately upstream of the targeted DNA sequence, and is not rescued by transcription factor IIS, which is in contrast to pol II blockage by a nucleosome barrier. Further analysis reveals that two conserved pol II residues in the Switch 1 region contribute to pol II stalling. Our study suggests this motif in pol II can sense the structural changes of the DNA minor groove and can be considered a "minor groove sensor." Prolonged interference of transcription elongation by sequence-specific minor groove binders may present opportunities to target transcription addiction for cancer therapy.

Transcription errors induce proteotoxic stress and shorten cellular lifespan.

Transcription errors occur in all living cells; however, it is unknown how these errors affect cellular health. To answer this question, we monitor yeast cells that are genetically engineered to display error-prone transcription. We discover that these cells suffer from a profound loss in proteostasis, which sensitizes them to the expression of genes that are associated with protein-folding diseases in humans; thus, transcription errors represent a new molecular mechanism by which cells can acquire disease phenotypes. We further find that the error rate of transcription increases as cells age, suggesting that transcription errors affect proteostasis particularly in aging cells. Accordingly, transcription errors accelerate the aggregation of a peptide that is implicated in Alzheimer's disease, and shorten the lifespan of cells. These experiments reveal a previously unappreciated role for transcriptional fidelity in cellular health and aging.

Elevated mutation rate during meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Mutations accumulate during all stages of growth, but only germ line mutations contribute to evolution. While meiosis contributes to evolution by reassortment of parental alleles, we show here that the process itself is inherently mutagenic. We have previously shown that the DNA synthesis associated with repair of a double-strand break is about 1000-fold less accurate than S-phase synthesis. Since the process of meiosis involves many programmed DSBs, we reasoned that this repair might also be mutagenic. Indeed, in the early 1960's Magni and Von Borstel observed elevated reversion of recessive alleles during meiosis, and found that the revertants were more likely to be associated with a crossover than non-revertants, a process that they called "the meiotic effect." Here we use a forward mutation reporter (CAN1 HIS3) placed at either a meiotic recombination coldspot or hotspot near the MAT locus on Chromosome III. We find that the increased mutation rate at CAN1 (6 to 21 -fold) correlates with the underlying recombination rate at the locus. Importantly, we show that the elevated mutation rate is fully dependent upon Spo11, the protein that introduces the meiosis specific DSBs. To examine associated recombination we selected for random spores with or without a mutation in CAN1. We find that the mutations isolated this way show an increased association with recombination (crossovers, loss of crossover interference and/or increased gene conversion tracts). Polζ appears to contribute about half of the mutations induced during meiosis, but is not the only source of mutations for the meiotic effect. We see no difference in either the spectrum or distribution of mutations between mitosis and meiosis. The correlation of hotspots with elevated mutagenesis provides a mechanism for organisms to control evolution rates in a gene specific manner.

A genetic assay for transcription errors reveals multilayer control of RNA polymerase II fidelity.

We developed a highly sensitive assay to detect transcription errors in vivo. The assay is based on suppression of a missense mutation in the active site tyrosine in the Cre recombinase. Because Cre acts as tetramer, background from translation errors are negligible. Functional Cre resulting from rare transcription errors that restore the tyrosine codon can be detected by Cre-dependent rearrangement of reporter genes. Hence, transient transcription errors are captured as stable genetic changes. We used this Cre-based reporter to screen for mutations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RPB1 (RPO21) that increase the level of misincorporation during transcription. The mutations are in three domains of Rpb1, the trigger loop, the bridge helix, and in sites involved in binding to TFIIS. Biochemical characterization demonstrates that these variants have elevated misincorporation, and/or ability to extend mispaired bases, or defects in TFIIS mediated editing.

GAP-Seq: a method for identification of DNA palindromes.

BACKGROUND: Closely spaced long inverted repeats, also known as DNA palindromes, can undergo intrastrand annealing to form DNA hairpins. The ability to form these hairpins results in genome instability, difficulties in maintaining clones in Escherichia coli and major problems for most DNA sequencing approaches. Because of their role in genomic instability and gene amplification in some human cancers, it is important to develop systematic approaches to detect and characterize DNA palindromes. RESULTS: We developed a new protocol to identify palindromes that couples the S1 nuclease treated Cot0 DNA (GAPF) with high-throughput sequencing (GAP-Seq). Unlike earlier protocols, it does not involve restriction enzymatic digestion prior to DNA snap-back thereby preserving longer DNA sequences. It also indicates the location of the novel junction, which can then be recovered. Using MCF-7 breast cancer cell line as the proof-of-principle analysis, we have identified 35 palindrome candidates and physically characterized the top 5 candidates and their junctions. Because this protocol eliminates many of the false positives that plague earlier techniques, we have improved palindrome identification. CONCLUSIONS: The GAP-Seq approach underscores the importance of developing new tools for identifying and characterizing palindromes, and provides a new strategy to systematically assess palindromes in genomes. It will be useful for studying human cancers and other diseases associated with palindromes.

The fidelity of transcription: RPB1 (RPO21) mutations that increase transcriptional slippage in S. cerevisiae.

The fidelity of RNA synthesis depends on both accurate template-mediated nucleotide selection and proper maintenance of register between template and RNA. Loss of register, or transcriptional slippage, is particularly likely on homopolymeric runs in the template. Transcriptional slippage can alter the coding capacity of mRNAs and is used as a regulatory mechanism. Here we describe mutations in the largest subunit of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase II that substantially increase the level of transcriptional slippage. Alleles of RPB1 (RPO21) with elevated slippage rates were identified among 6-azauracil-sensitive mutants and were also isolated using a slippage-dependent reporter gene. Biochemical characterization of polymerase II isolated from these mutants confirms elevated levels of transcriptional slippage.

Isolation and characterization of RNA polymerase rpoB mutations that alter transcription slippage during elongation in Escherichia coli.

Transcription fidelity is critical for maintaining the accurate flow of genetic information. The study of transcription fidelity has been limited because the intrinsic error rate of transcription is obscured by the higher error rate of translation, making identification of phenotypes associated with transcription infidelity challenging. Slippage of elongating RNA polymerase (RNAP) on homopolymeric A/T tracts in DNA represents a special type of transcription error leading to disruption of open reading frames in Escherichia coli mRNA. However, the regions in RNAP involved in elongation slippage and its molecular mechanism are unknown. We constructed an A/T tract that is out of frame relative to a downstream lacZ gene on the chromosome to examine transcriptional slippage during elongation. Further, we developed a genetic system that enabled us for the first time to isolate and characterize E. coli RNAP mutants with altered transcriptional slippage in vivo. We identified several amino acid residues in the ß subunit of RNAP that affect slippage in vivo and in vitro. Interestingly, these highly clustered residues are located near the RNA strand of the RNA-DNA hybrid in the elongation complex. Our E. coli study complements an accompanying study of slippage by yeast RNAP II and provides the basis for future studies on the mechanism of transcription fidelity.

Intrinsic translocation barrier as an initial step in pausing by RNA polymerase II.

Pausing of RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) by backtracking on DNA is a major regulatory mechanism in control of eukaryotic transcription. Backtracking occurs by extrusion of the 3' end of the RNA from the active center after bond formation and before translocation of RNAP II on DNA. In several documented cases, backtracking requires a special signal such as A/T-rich sequences forming an unstable RNA-DNA hybrid in the elongation complex. However, other sequence-dependent backtracking signals and conformations of RNAP II leading to backtracking remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate with S. cerevisiae RNAP II that a cleavage-deficient elongation factor TFIIS (TFIIS(AA)) enhances backtracked pauses during regular transcription. This is due to increased efficiency of formation of an intermediate that leads to backtracking. This intermediate may involve misalignment at the 3' end of the nascent RNA in the active center of the yeast RNAP II, and TFIIS(AA) promotes formation of this intermediate at the DNA sequences, presenting a high-energy barrier to translocation. We proposed a three-step mechanism for RNAP II pausing in which a prolonged dwell time in the pre-translocated state increases the likelihood of the 3' RNA end misalignment facilitating a backtrack pausing. These results demonstrate an important role of the intrinsic blocks to forward translocation in pausing by RNAP II.

Mechanism of translesion transcription by RNA polymerase II and its role in cellular resistance to DNA damage.

UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) in the template DNA strand stall transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II (Pol II). If the nucleotide excision repair machinery does not promptly remove the CPDs, stalled Pol II creates a roadblock for DNA replication and subsequent rounds of transcription. Here we present evidence that Pol II has an intrinsic capacity for translesion synthesis (TLS) that enables bypass of the CPD with or without repair. Translesion synthesis depends on the trigger loop and bridge helix, the two flexible regions of the Pol II subunit Rpb1 that participate in substrate binding, catalysis, and translocation. Substitutions in Rpb1 that promote lesion bypass in vitro increase UV resistance in vivo, and substitutions that inhibit lesion bypass decrease cell survival after UV irradiation. Thus, translesion transcription becomes essential for cell survival upon accumulation of the unrepaired CPD lesions in genomic DNA.

Isolation and characterization of transcription fidelity mutants.

Accurate transcription is an essential step in maintaining genetic information. Error-prone transcription has been proposed to contribute to cancer, aging, adaptive mutagenesis, and mutagenic evolution of retroviruses and retrotransposons. The mechanisms controlling transcription fidelity and the biological consequences of transcription errors are poorly understood. Because of the transient nature of mRNAs and the lack of reliable experimental systems, the identification and characterization of defects that increase transcription errors have been particularly challenging. In this review we describe novel genetic screens for the isolation of fidelity mutants in both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli RNA polymerases. We obtained and characterized two distinct classes of mutants altering NTP misincorporation and transcription slippage both in vivo and in vitro. Our study not only validates the genetic schemes for the isolation of RNA polymerase mutants that alter fidelity, but also sheds light on the mechanism of transcription accuracy. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chromatin in time and space.

Rpb9 subunit controls transcription fidelity by delaying NTP sequestration in RNA polymerase II.

Rpb9 is a small non-essential subunit of yeast RNA polymerase II located on the surface on the enzyme. Deletion of the RPB9 gene shows synthetic lethality with the low fidelity rpb1-E1103G mutation localized in the trigger loop, a mobile element of the catalytic Rpb1 subunit, which has been shown to control transcription fidelity. Similar to the rpb1-E1103G mutation, the RPB9 deletion substantially enhances NTP misincorporation and increases the rate of mismatch extension with the next cognate NTP in vitro. Using pre-steady state kinetic analysis, we show that RPB9 deletion promotes sequestration of NTPs in the polymerase active center just prior to the phosphodiester bond formation. We propose a model in which the Rpb9 subunit controls transcription fidelity by delaying the closure of the trigger loop on the incoming NTP via interaction between the C-terminal domain of Rpb9 and the trigger loop. Our findings reveal a mechanism for regulation of transcription fidelity by protein factors located at a large distance from the active center of RNA polymerase II.

Transient reversal of RNA polymerase II active site closing controls fidelity of transcription elongation.

To study fidelity of RNA polymerase II (Pol II), we analyzed properties of the 6-azauracil-sensitive and TFIIS-dependent E1103G mutant of rbp1 (rpo21), the gene encoding the catalytic subunit of Pol II in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using an in vivo retrotransposition-based transcription fidelity assay, we observed that rpb1-E1103G causes a 3-fold increase in transcription errors. This mutant showed a 10-fold decrease in fidelity of transcription elongation in vitro. The mutation does not appear to significantly affect translocation state equilibrium of Pol II in a stalled elongation complex. Primarily, it promotes NTP sequestration in the polymerase active center. Furthermore, pre-steady-state analyses revealed that the E1103G mutation shifted the equilibrium between the closed and the open active center conformations toward the closed form. Thus, open conformation of the active center emerges as an intermediate essential for preincorporation fidelity control. Similar mechanisms may control fidelity of DNA-dependent DNA polymerases and RNA-dependent RNA polymerases.

Non-homologous end joining is important for repair of Cr(VI)-induced DNA damage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Hexavalent chromium is known to be a potent carcinogen that leads to many different DNA lesions, including DNA-protein crosslinks, and single- and double-strand breaks. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, DNA double-strand breaks are mainly repaired by either homologous recombination (HR) or non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair pathways. Here, we show that mutants deficient in NHEJ (yku70Delta, rad50Delta, dnl4Delta, mre11Delta, xrs2Delta) of S. cerevisiae are more sensitive to Cr(VI) toxic effects than wild-type cells. Also, a deletion mutant of SAE2 showed a similar sensitivity to Cr(VI), even though it has no apparent direct role in NHEJ. We also found that double mutants in HR and NHEJ (yku70Delta/rad52Delta, rad50Delta/rad52Delta, dnl4Delta/rad52Delta, mre11Delta/rad52Delta, xrs2Delta/rad52Delta) are synergistically more sensitive to Cr(VI) exposure than any of the single mutants, indicating that both repair pathways are involved in the repair of Cr(VI)-induced lesions. Finally, when the NHEJ mutants were exposed to Cr(VI) under anaerobic growth conditions, Cr(VI) toxicity was suppressed.

Mutations in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae RPB1 gene conferring hypersensitivity to 6-azauracil.

RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) in eukaryotic cells drives transcription of most messenger RNAs. RNAPII core enzyme is composed of 12 polypeptides where Rpb1 is the largest subunit. To further understand the mechanisms of RNAPII transcription, we isolated and characterized novel point mutants of RPB1 that are sensitive to the nucleotide-depleting drug 6-azauracil (6AU). In this work we reisolated the rpo21-24/rpb1-E1230K allele, which reduces the interaction of RNAPII-TFIIS, and identified five new point mutations in RPB1 that cause hypersensitivity to 6AU. The novel mutants affect highly conserved residues of Rpb1 and have differential genetic and biochemical effects. Three of the mutations affect the "lid" and "rudder," two small loops suggested by structural studies to play a central role in the separation of the RNA-DNA hybrids. Most interestingly, two mutations affecting the catalytic center (rpb1-N488D) and the homology box G (rpb1-E1103G) have strong opposite effects on the intrinsic in vitro polymerization rate of RNAPII. Moreover, the synthetic interactions of these mutants with soh1, spt4, and dst1 suggest differential in vivo effects.