The effect of dietary supplementation with blueberry, cyanidin-3-O-ß-glucoside, yoghurt and its peptides on gene expression associated with glucose metabolism in skeletal muscle obtained from a high-fat-high-carbohydrate diet induced obesity model.

Obesity is a leading global health problem contributing to various chronic diseases, including type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of this study was to investigate whether blueberries, yoghurt, and their respective bioactive components, Cyanidin-3-O-ß-glucoside (C3G) and peptides alone or in combinations, alter the expression of genes related to glucose metabolism in skeletal muscles from diet-induced obese mice. In extensor digitorum longus (EDL), yoghurt up-regulated the expression of activation of 5'adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) and glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4), and down-regulated the expression of angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AGTR-1). The combination of blueberries and yoghurt down-regulated the mRNA expression of AGTR-1 and Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1) in the EDL. Whereas the combination of C3G and peptides down-regulated AGTR-1 and up-regulated GLUT4 mRNA expression in the EDL. In the soleus, blueberries and yoghurt alone, and their combination down-regulated AGTR-1 and up-regulated GLUT4 mRNA expression. In summary blueberries and yoghurt, regulated multiple genes associated with glucose metabolism in skeletal muscles, and therefore may play a role in the management and prevention of T2DM.

Enrichment of n-3 containing ether phospholipids in plasma after 30 days of krill oil compared with fish oil supplementation.

There are conflicting findings over the bioavailability of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) from krill oil (KO) compared with fish oil (FO) in short- and long-term studies. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of KO versus FO on the enrichment of molecular species of plasma phospholipids in young women following a 30-day consumption of the n-3 oils. Eleven healthy women aged 18-45 years consumed seven capsules of KO per day (containing a total of 1.27 g n-3 PUFA) or five capsules of FO per day (total of 1.44 g n-3 PUFA) for 30 days in a randomized crossover study, separated by at least a 30-day washout period. Fasting blood samples were collected at day zero (baseline), day 15 and day 30 and analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS for molecular species of phospholipids. Supplementation increased n-3 PUFA in main phospholipids classes in both groups. After 30 days of supplementation, 35 out of 70 molecular species containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPAn-3) had a significantly greater concentration in KO group compared with the FO treated group. The majority (89%) of the differentiated molecular species were choline and ethanolamine ether-phospholipids. These data reveal that analysis of plasma phospholipids following 30 days of consumption of KO (a marine oil rich in phospholipids, including ether phospholipids) resulted in an enrichment of n-3 PUFA in molecular species of ether-phospholipids compared with FO (a triacylglycerol-rich marine oil).

Krill oil extract inhibits the migration of human colorectal cancer cells and down-regulates EGFR signalling and PD-L1 expression.

BACKGROUND: The currently available treatments for colorectal cancer (CRC) are often associated with serious side-effects. Therefore, the development of a novel nutraceutical agent may provide an alternative complementary therapy for CRC. Overexpression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) associates with a range of cancers while downregulation of EGFR signalling can inhibit cancer growth. Our previous studies have shown that the free fatty acid extract (FFAE) of krill oil exhibits anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic properties. This study determines the effects of krill oil extract on the migration of human CRC cells, and its potential role in modulating EGFR signalling pathway and the expression of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). METHODS: Human CRC cells, DLD-1 and HT-29 were treated with FFAE of KO at 0.03 and 0.12 µL/100 µL for 8 or 24 h. Cell migration was determined by Boyden chamber migration assay. The expression of EGFR, phosphorylated EGFR (pEGFR), protein kinase B (AKT), phosphorylated AKT (pAKT), extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2), phosphorylated ERK1/2 (pERK1/2) as well as PD-L1 were assessed by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The FFAE of krill oil significantly inhibited cell migration compared to ethanol-treated (vehicle control) cells (P < 0.01 to P < 0.001). At the molecular level, krill oil extract reduced the expression of EGFR, pEGFR (P < 0.001 for both) and their downstream signalling, pERK1/2 and pAKT (P < 0.01 to P < 0.001) without altering total ERK 1/2 and AKT levels. In addition, the expression of PD-L1 was reduced by 67 to 72% (P < 0.001) following the treatment with krill oil extract. CONCLUSION: This study has demonstrated that krill oil may be a potential therapeutic/adjunctive agent for CRC attributed to its anti-migratory effects.. The potential anti-cancer properties of krill oil are likely to be associated with the downregulation of EGFR, pEGFR and their downstream pERK/ERK1/2 and pAKT/AKT signalling pathways along with the downregulation of PD-L1.

Krill Oil Has Different Effects on the Plasma Lipidome Compared with Fish Oil Following 30 Days of Supplementation in Healthy Women: A Randomized Controlled and Crossover Study.

This is a follow-up of our previous postprandial study and it focused on the plasma lipidomic responses to 30 days of krill oil (KO) versus fish oil (FO) supplementations in healthy women. Eleven women (aged 18-50 years) consumed KO or FO for 30 days in a randomized, cross-over study, with at least a four-week washout period between supplementations. The daily supplements provided 1.27 g/day of long-chain (LC) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from KO (containing 0.76 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 0.42 g docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) and 1.44 g/day from FO (containing 0.79 g EPA, 0.47 g DHA). Fasting plasma samples at days 0, 15, and 30 were analyzed using gas chromatography and liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry. KO resulted in a significantly greater relative area under the curve (relAUC) for plasma EPA after 30 days. Lipidomic analysis showed that 26 of 43 lipid molecular species had a significantly greater relAUC in the KO group, while 17/43 showed a significantly lower relAUC compared with the FO group. More than 38% of the lipids species which increased more following KO contained omega-3 PUFA, while where FO was greater than KO, only 12% contained omega-3 PUFA. These data show that KO and FO do not have equivalent effects on the plasma lipidome.

Integrated Meta-omics Approaches To Understand the Microbiome of Spontaneous Fermentation of Traditional Chinese Pu-erh Tea.

The microbiome in fermentation has direct impacts on the quality of fermented foods and is of great scientific and commercial interest. Despite considerable effort to explain the microbial metabolism associated with food fermentation, the role of the microbiome in pu-erh tea fermentation remains unknown. Here, we applied integrated meta-omics approaches to characterize the microbiome in two repeated fermentations of pu-erh tea. Metabarcoding analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA genes showed a decrease in the proportion of Proteobacteria and an increase in the abundance of Firmicutes during fermentation. Metabarcoding analysis of fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence demonstrated that Rasamsonia, Thermomyces, and Aspergillus were dominant at the intermediate stage, whereas Aspergillus was dominant at other stages in fermentation. Metaproteomics analysis assigned primary microbial metabolic activity to metabolism and identified microbial carbohydrate-active enzymes involved in the degradation of polysaccharides including cellulose, xylan, xyloglucan, pectin, starch, lignin, galactomannan, and chitin. Metabolomics and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that levels of phenolic compounds, including gallates, decreased whereas contents of gallic acid and ellagic acid significantly increased after fermentation (P < 0.05). The changes in levels of gallates and gallic acid were associated with the hydrolysis of tannase. Glycoside hydrolases, phenol 2-monooxygenase, salicylaldehyde dehydrogenase, salicylate 1-monooxygenase, catechol O-methyltransferase, catechol dioxygenase, and quercetin 2,3-dioxygenases were hypothesized to be related to oxidation, conversion, or degradation of phenolic compounds. We demonstrated microbiota in fermentation and their function in the production of enzymes related to the degradation of polysaccharides, and metabolism of phenolic compounds, resulting in changes in metabolite contents and the quality of pu-erh tea.IMPORTANCE Fermented foods play important roles in diets worldwide and account for approximately one-third of all foods and beverages consumed. To date, traditional fermentation has used spontaneous fermentation. The microbiome in fermentation has direct impacts on the quality and safety of fermented foods and contributes to the preservation of traditional methods. Here, we used an integrated meta-omics approach to study the microbiome in the fermentation of pu-erh tea, which is a well-known Chinese fermented food with a special flavor and healthful benefits. This study advanced the knowledge of microbiota, metabolites, and enzymes in the fermentation of pu-erh tea. These novel insights shed light onto the complex microbiome in pu-erh fermentation and highlight the power of integrated meta-omics approaches in understanding the microbiome in food fermentation ecosystems.

Differential plasma postprandial lipidomic responses to krill oil and fish oil supplementations in women: A randomized crossover study.

OBJECTIVES: There is no convincing evidence that krill oil (KO) consumption results in a higher incorporation of long chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids into blood lipid fractions than fish oil (FO). This study examined the postprandial plasma lipidomic responses to KO supplementation compared with FO supplementation in healthy women. METHODS: Ten women (aged 18-45 y) consumed a high-fat (15 g of olive oil) breakfast, supplemented with 5 g of KO or FO in a randomized crossover study with a minimum 7-d washout period between the supplementations. Plasma samples collected at the fasting state and at 3 and 5 h postprandially were analyzed using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: After the supplementations, 5 out of 34 lipid classes or subclasses had significantly greater concentrations from KO compared with FO. There were 27 molecular species including 5 ether-phospholipid species, out of a total of 701, which had significant differences between supplementations in the postprandial period. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from KO were preferentially partitioned toward phospholipid molecular species, whereas eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from FO were preferentially partitioned toward neutral lipids.

Plasmalogens and Alzheimer's disease: a review.

Growing evidence suggests that ethanolamine plasmalogens (PlsEtns), a subtype of phospholipids, have a close association with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Decreased levels of PlsEtns have been commonly found in AD patients, and were correlated with cognition deficit and severity of disease. Limited studies showed positive therapeutic outcomes with plasmalogens interventions in AD subjects and in rodents. The potential mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of PlsEtns on AD may be related to the reduction of γ-secretase activity, an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ß-amyloid (Aß), a hallmark of AD. Emerging in vitro evidence also showed that PlsEtns prevented neuronal cell death by enhancing phosphorylation of AKT and ERK signaling through the activation of orphan G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) proteins. In addition, PlsEtns have been found to suppress the death of primary mouse hippocampal neuronal cells through the inhibition of caspase-9 and caspase-3 cleavages. Further in-depth investigations are required to determine the signature molecular species of PlsEtns associated with AD, hence their potential role as biomarkers. Clinical intervention with plasmalogens is still in its infancy but may have the potential to be explored for a novel therapeutic approach to correct AD pathology and neural function.

Postprandial long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid response to krill oil and fish oil consumption in healthy women: a randomised controlled, single-dose, crossover study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Krill oil (KO) and fish oil (FO) are good sources of health-benefiting long chain n- 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA), EPA and DHA. There are conflicting outcomes on the bioavailability of LC n-3 PUFA from KO compared with FO. This study investigated the postprandial incorporation of LC n- 3 PUFA into plasma lipids following consumption of 5 capsules of KO or FO in comparison with olive oil (OO) control in healthy women. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: 10 women (aged 18-45 years) consumed a high-fat (15 g) breakfast, supplemented with 5 g of KO, FO, or OO in a random order with a minimum seven-day washout period between the supplementations. The LC n-3 PUFA content in KO was 907 mg compared with 1441 mg in FO. Blood samples were collected in the fasting state and for the next 5 hours after test meal consumption on an hourly basis. RESULTS: Significant increases in plasma EPA concentrations were observed starting at 2 h after KO and FO consumption (p<0.05). There were no significant changes in either DHA or DPA between the three groups. The increases in plasma EPA concentrations were similar between the KO and FO groups (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The lower dose (31%) of EPA from KO led to a similar plasma EPA concentration as in the FO group, suggesting that EPA from KO may be more efficiently incorporated into plasma. This may be related to the high content of phospholipids and free fatty acids in KO.

Caralluma Fimbriata Supplementation Improves the Appetite Behavior of Children and Adolescents with Prader-Willi Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) results from a deletion of the paternal genes in the region of chromosome 15q11-q13. PWS develops hyperphagia, which when left unmanaged, leads to an excessive ingestion of food. To date there is inadequate pharmacological treatment or supplementation for modification of the PWS hyperphagia and/or the associated behaviors. Therefore, the best practice is familial supervision and restriction of diet and environment. AIM: We aimed to determine if the natural supplement of Caralluma fimbriata extract (CFE) could attenuate hyperphagia or the associated appetite behaviors in children and adolescents with PWS over the 4-week pilot trial period. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized crossover trial over a 10-week period to investigate the effects of CFE on hunger control, in a cohort of children and adolescents with confirmed PWS (n =15, mean age 9.27 ± 3.16 years, body weight 43.98 ± 23.99 kg). Participants from Australia and New Zealand ingested CFE or a placebo of maltodextrin/cabbage leaf over a 4-week period, with a 2-week washout before the crossover to the other treatment. Weekly comparisons in appetite behavior, severity, and drive were recorded by parents, as scaled time-point measures on a hyperphagia questionnaire validated for PWS. RESULTS: CFE administration was found to induce a significant accumulative easing of hyperphagia (P = 0.05), with decreases evident in one-third of the participants. Furthermore due to CFE supplementation, a significant decrease (P ≤ 0.05) was recorded in the category of behavior and a decrease in hyperphagia (n = 8, P = 0.009) was observed at the highest dose 1,000 mg/day (recommended adult dose). There were no reported adverse effects at any dose. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that an extract of the Indian cactus succulent Caralluma fimbriata eases hyperphagic appetite behavior within a cohort of children and adolescents (n = 15) with PWS without notable adverse effects. The outcomes of this study will have a potential positive impact on PWS management.

Coleus forskohlii Extract Supplementation in Conjunction with a Hypocaloric Diet Reduces the Risk Factors of Metabolic Syndrome in Overweight and Obese Subjects: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Limited studies have shown that Coleus forskohlii extract may aid in weight management. This randomized, double blind placebo-controlled clinical study assessed the effects of supplementation with C. forskohlii extract on key markers of obesity and metabolic parameters in overweight and obese individuals. Thirty participants completed the trial and they were randomly assigned to receive either 250 mg of C. forskohlii extract (n = 15) or a placebo twice daily for 12 weeks. All participants were advised to follow a hypocaloric diet throughout the study. Body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumference, and waist to hip ratio, were monitored fortnightly. Dietary intake was assessed at the baseline and weeks 4, 8 and 12. Appetite was assessed using visual analogue scales and blood samples were analyzed for plasma lipids, ghrelin, leptin, glucose and insulin at the baseline and end of the intervention. Significant reductions to waist and hip circumference (p = 0.02; p = 0.01, respectively) were recorded in both experimental and placebo groups after the 12 week intervention. Furthermore, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) was significantly increased (p = 0.01) in both groups. The experimental group showed a favorable improvement in insulin concentration and insulin resistance (p = 0.001; 0.01 respectively) compared to the placebo group. These findings suggest that C. forskohlii extract in conjunction with a hypocaloric diet may be useful in the management of metabolic risk factors.

Plant extracts with appetite suppressing properties for body weight control: a systematic review of double blind randomized controlled clinical trials.

OVERVIEW: As obesity has reached epidemic proportions, the management of this global disease is of clinical importance. The availability and popularity of natural dietary supplements for the treatment of obesity has risen dramatically in recent years. AIMS: The aim of this paper was to assess the current evidence of commonly available natural supplements used to suppress appetite for obesity control and management in humans using a systematic search of clinical trials meeting an acceptable standard of evidence. METHODS: The electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and MEDLINE with full text (via EBSCOHost) were accessed during late 2012 for randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) using natural plant extracts as interventions to treat obesity through appetite regulation. A quality analysis using a purpose-designed scale and an estimation of effect size, where data were available, was also calculated. The inclusion criteria included the following: sample participants classified as overweight or obese adults (aged 18-65 years), randomized, double blind, controlled design, suitable placebo/control intervention, sample size >20, duration of intervention >2 weeks, have measurable outcomes on appetite or food intake and anthropometry, and full paper in English. RESULTS: There were 14 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The findings from published double blind RCTs revealed mostly inconclusive evidence that plant extracts are effective in reducing body weight through appetite suppression. Caralluma fimbriata extract and a combination supplement containing Garcinia cambogia plus Gymnema sylvestre were the only exceptions. CONCLUSION: According to the findings from this systematic review, the evidence is not convincing in demonstrating that most dietary supplements used as appetite suppressants for weight loss in the treatment of obesity are effective and safe. A balance between conclusive findings by double blind RCTs and advertisement is required to avoid safety concerns and dissatisfaction from consumers.

A pilot study investigating the effect of Caralluma fimbriata extract on the risk factors of metabolic syndrome in overweight and obese subjects: a randomised controlled clinical trial.

OBJECTIVES: Central obesity is a key component of metabolic syndrome and it is often associated with other risk factors such as dyslipidemia, elevated plasma glucose levels and elevated blood pressure (BP). In this pilot study, the effect of Caralluma fimbriata (an edible succulent) extract in combination with controlled dietary intake and physical activity on these risk factors was assessed in overweight and obese Australian subjects. DESIGN: This was a randomised, double blind placebo controlled clinical trial. Forty-three adults aged 29-59 years were recruited. The eligibility criteria included a Body Mass Index (BMI) >25 kg/m(2), or a waist circumference >94 cm (male), >80 cm (female). Thirty-three participants completed the 12-week study at Victoria University Nutritional Therapy Clinic. Participants were randomly assigned into two groups. C. fimbriata extract and placebo were orally administered as 500 mg capsules twice daily (1 g/day) and dietary intake and exercise were monitored weekly. RESULTS: The results of thirty-three participants (experimental group, n = 17; placebo group n = 16) were analysed. The primary outcome measure was the decline in waist circumference. By week 9, the experimental group had lost 5.7 cm, compared to only 2.8 cm loss in the placebo group (Difference: -2.890; 95% CI; -5.802 to 0.023). Post intervention, the experimental group had lost 6.5 cm compared to 2.6 cm loss in the placebo group (Difference: -3.847; 95% CI; -7.466 to 0.228). Waist to hip ratio (WHR) also improved significantly after 12 weeks intervention in the experimental group, with a total reduction of 0.03 being recorded compared to 0.01 increase in the placebo group (Difference: -0.033; 95% CI; -0.064 to -0.002). There was also a significant decline in the palatability (visual appeal, smell, taste) of the test meal and sodium intake in the experimental group at week 12 (p < 0.05). In addition a significant reduction in body weight, BMI, hip circumference, systolic BP, HR, triglyceride levels, total fat and saturated fat intake within both groups was observed following the intervention period (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Supplementation with C. fimbriata extract whilst controlling overall dietary intake and physical activity may potentially play a role in curbing central obesity, the key component of metabolic syndrome. Controlling dietary intake and exercise improved body weight and favourably influenced the metabolic risk profile.

A review on botanical species and chemical compounds with appetite suppressing properties for body weight control.

As obesity has reached epidemic proportions, the management of this global disease is of clinical importance. The availability and popularity of natural dietary supplements for the treatment of obesity has risen dramatically in recent years. The purpose of this paper was to review the effect of commonly available over the counter plant-derived supplements used to suppress appetite for obesity control and management. The data were obtained from the electronic databases PubMed, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and MEDLINE with full text (via EBSCOHost) and the databases were accessed during late 2012 - early January 2013. The botanical species discussed in this review include Camellia sinensis, Caralluma fimbriata, Citrus aurantium, Coleus forskohlii, Garcinia cambogia and Phaseolus vulgaris. This review found that many botanical species including crude extracts and isolated compounds from plants have been shown to provide potentially promising therapeutic effects including appetite control and weight loss. However, many of these crude extracts and compounds need to be further investigated to define the magnitude of the effects, optimal dosage, mechanisms of action, long term safety, and potential side effects.

The growth performance of Jade Tiger cultured abalone fed diets supplemented with fish oil and vegetable oils.

BACKGROUND: The effects of fish oil (FO) supplementation and the dietary replacement of FO with flaxseed oil (FlaxO) and canola oil (CO) on the growth of cultured abalone was investigated. The study involved three growth experiments: (E1) diets containing 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5% of FO, respectively; (E2) diets in which FO was serially replaced by 25, 50, 75 and 100% FlaxO, respectively; and (E3) diets in which FO was serially replaced by 25, 50, 75 and 100% CO, respectively. RESULTS: In Experiment 1, abalone fed a diet supplemented with 1.5% FO showed a significantly higher (121.2 ± 1.1 mg day(-1)) daily growth rate of weight (DGRw ) compared to control (70.1 ± 1.71 mg day(-1)). In Experiment 2, abalone fed 1.5% FO diet and diets containing 25-75% FlaxO showed no significant differences in DGRw. The diet containing 100% FlaxO showed significantly lower (63.3 ± 6.7 mg day(-1)) DGRw. In Experiment 3, abalone fed diets containing 25% and 50% CO showed similar DGRw as those fed a 1.5% FO diet. The diet containing 75% and 100% CO showed significantly lower (63.7 ± 5.0 to 95.4 ± 5.1 mg day(-1)) DGRw. CONCLUSION: Supplementation with 1.5% of dietary FO can improve growth performance in cultured abalone. It is feasible to replace 75% of dietary FO with FlaxO and 50% of dietary FO with CO, without negative effect on growth performance.

Effects of dietary fish oil replacement with flaxseed oil on tissue fatty acid composition and expression of desaturase and elongase genes.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of total or partial substitution of dietary fish oil (FO) by flaxseed oil (FlaxO) in Jade Tiger hybrid abalone on fatty acid composition of muscle, gonad and digestive gland, and the expression of desaturase and elongase genes. Abalone were fed five different experimental diets in which FO (control diet) was serially replaced by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% FlaxO respectively. RESULTS: Muscle, gonad and digestive gland of abalone fed the control diet and the diets containing 25%, 50% and 75% FlaxO showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) compared to those fed the 100% FlaxO. The results also showed that Δ-6 desaturase and elongase gene expression in muscle was increased in a graded manner by increasing dietary FlaxO. The expression of both genes was higher in abalone fed the FlaxO-substituted diets compared to the abalone fed FO. CONCLUSION: The replacement of FO with FlaxO in commercial abalone diets at levels of 25-75% can improve the composition of health-benefiting n-3 polyunsturated fatty acids in tissues of cultured hybrid abalone, and achieve similar outcomes to FO supplementation.

Dietary fish oil supplements increase tissue n-3 fatty acid composition and expression of delta-6 desaturase and elongase-2 in Jade Tiger hybrid abalone.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of fish oil (FO) supplements on fatty acid composition and the expression of ∆6 desaturase and elongase 2 genes in Jade Tiger abalone. Five test diets were formulated to contain 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5% of FO respectively, and the control diet was the normal commercial abalone diet with no additional FO supplement. The muscle, gonad and digestive glands (DG) of abalone fed with all of the five test diets showed significantly high levels of total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid n-3 (DPAn-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) than the control group. In all three types of tissue, abalone fed diet supplemented with 1.5% FO showed the highest level of these fatty acids (P < 0.05). For DPAn-3 the higher level was also found in muscle and gonad of abalone fed diet supplemented with 2% FO (P < 0.05). Elongase 2 expression was markedly higher in the muscle of abalone fed diet supplemented with 1.5% FO (P < 0.05), followed by the diet containing 2% FO supplement. For ∆6 desaturase, significantly higher expression was observed in muscle of abalone fed with diet containing 0.5% FO supplement (P < 0.05). Supplementation with FO in the normal commercial diet can significantly improve long chain n-3 PUFA level in cultured abalone, with 1.5% being the most effective supplementation level.

The effect of cooking process on the total lipid and n-3 LC-PUFA contents of Australian Bass Strait scallops, Pecten fumatus.

A total of twenty-three Australian Bass Strait scallops, Pecten fumatus processed by three different cooking methods: steam, battered and deep-fry, and pan-fry were analysed to determine the total lipid and health-benefiting n-3 PUFA contents. Fry process resulted in a significantly higher lipid content (p<0.05) with 1.98g/100g being found in deep-fried and 1.78g/100g in pan-fried scallops while 1.31g/100g was recorded in the fresh control group (p<0.05). A higher concentration of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), total n-6 PUFA and linoleic (LA, 18:2n-6) were also observed in fried scallops (p<0.05). The two main n-3 LC-PUFA were eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and their concentration also varied depending on the cooking methods. Pan-fried scallops showed a higher concentration of EPA, DHA and total n-3 PUFA while steamed scallops had a higher concentration of DHA only (p<0.05). The ratio of n-3/n-6 PUFA was markedly lower in both fried groups than in control and steamed scallops (p<0.0001). Three frozen samples were also examined and no significant variations in the lipid profiles have been observed after 22 days. The variation of lipid profiles reflects mainly the uptake of vegetable oil components and loss of water during cooking process. Scallops represent a good source of n-3 LC-PUFA with the concentration ranging from 312.4 mg/100g in fresh scallops to 522.1mg/100g in pan-fried scallops.