Implementing Pharmacogenomics in Europe: Design and Implementation Strategy of the Ubiquitous Pharmacogenomics Consortium.

Despite scientific and clinical advances in the field of pharmacogenomics (PGx), application into routine care remains limited. Opportunely, several implementation studies and programs have been initiated over recent years. This article presents an overview of these studies and identifies current research gaps. Importantly, one such gap is the undetermined collective clinical utility of implementing a panel of PGx-markers into routine care, because the evidence base is currently limited to specific, individual drug-gene pairs. The Ubiquitous Pharmacogenomics (U-PGx) Consortium, which has been funded by the European Commission's Horizon-2020 program, aims to address this unmet need. In a prospective, block-randomized, controlled clinical study (PREemptive Pharmacogenomic testing for prevention of Adverse drug REactions [PREPARE]), pre-emptive genotyping of a panel of clinically relevant PGx-markers, for which guidelines are available, will be implemented across healthcare institutions in seven European countries. The impact on patient outcomes and cost-effectiveness will be investigated. The program is unique in its multicenter, multigene, multidrug, multi-ethnic, and multihealthcare system approach.

[Thrombotic microangiopathy : Relevant new aspects for intensive care physicians]. / Thrombotische Mikroangiopathien : Relevante Neuigkeiten für den Intensivmediziner.

Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) is a clinical syndrome that is characterized by hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, and acute kidney injury, known as atypical hemolytic syndrome (aHUS), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), and shigatoxin-associated HUS (STEC-HUS) among others. Several diseases, like malignoma, infections, malignant hypertension, or autoimmune disease can result in secondary TMAs. aHUS is caused by a hyperactivated complement system. Identification of the underlying causes of the TMA is the most important issue and directly associated with treatment success. In case of secondary TMAs, treatment of the actual disease is the most important step, while in case of complement-mediated HUS treatment of choice is plasma exchange or anticomplement agents. For the treatment of TTP, rapid initiation of plasma exchange or plasma infusion is the treatment of choice. Patients with STEC-HUS should solely receive supportive treatment.

An inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase 2 single-nucleotide polymorphism impairs the effect of mycophenolic acid.

Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is a selective inhibitor of inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), the rate-limiting enzyme of de novo synthesis of guanine nucleotides. The isoenzyme IMPDH2 predominates in activated lymphocytes, and its inhibition by MPA is part of standard immunosuppressive regimens. Yet, there are significant unexplained differences in efficacy and tolerability among patients. The objective of this study was to analyze whether frequent variants in the IMPDH2 gene lead to changes in IMPDH activity and to differences in responsiveness to MPA therapy. All 14 exons and intron-exon boundary regions of IMPDH2 were sequenced from genomic DNA probes from 100 healthy individuals. Two novel exonic single-nucleotide polymorphisms were identified in 1% and one intronic polymorphism (rs11706052) in 19% of the study population. Lymphocyte IMPDH activity and proliferation under three MPA concentrations (2.5, 10 and 25 micromol l(-1)) were compared in rs11706052 carriers and wild-type individuals. The presence of rs11706052 polymorphism reduced the antiproliferative effect of MPA on lymphocytes by approximately 50% compared with the IMPDH2 wild-type form at therapeutic relevant concentrations of 10 micromol l(-1) and 25 micromol l(-1). We conclude that a poorer response to MPA therapy can be explained in some individuals by the presence of the rs11706052 polymorphism.

Enzyme replacement therapy with agalsidase alfa in patients with Fabry's disease: an analysis of registry data.

BACKGROUND: We analysed 5-year treatment with agalsidase alfa enzyme replacement therapy in patients with Fabry's disease who were enrolled in the Fabry Outcome Survey observational database (FOS). METHODS: Baseline and 5-year data were available for up to 181 adults (126 men) in FOS. Serial data for cardiac mass and function, renal function, pain, and quality of life were assessed. Safety and sensitivity analyses were done in patients with baseline and at least one relevant follow-up measurement during the 5 years (n=555 and n=475, respectively). FINDINGS: In patients with baseline cardiac hypertrophy, treatment resulted in a sustained reduction in left ventricular mass (LVM) index after 5 years (from 71.4 [SD 22.5] g/m(2.7) to 64.1 [18.7] g/m(2.7), p=0.0111) and a significant increase in midwall fractional shortening (MFS) from 14.3% (2.3) to 16.0% (3.8) after 3 years (p=0.02). In patients without baseline hypertrophy, LVM index and MFS remained stable. Mean yearly fall in estimated glomerular filtration rate versus baseline after 5 years of enzyme replacement therapy was -3.17 mL/min per 1.73 m(2) for men and -0.89 mL/min per 1.73 m(2) for women. Average pain, measured by Brief Pain Inventory score, improved significantly, from 3.7 (2.3) at baseline to 2.5 (2.4) after 5 years (p=0.0023). Quality of life, measured by deviation scores from normal EuroQol values, improved significantly, from -0.24 (0.3) at baseline to -0.17 (0.3) after 5 years (p=0.0483). Findings were confirmed by sensitivity analysis. No unexpected safety concerns were identified. INTERPRETATION: By comparison with historical natural history data for patients with Fabry's disease who were not treated with enzyme replacement therapy, long-term treatment with agalsidase alfa leads to substantial and sustained clinical benefits. FUNDING: Shire Human Genetic Therapies AB.

Prevalence of hypercalcitoninemia in patients on maintenance dialysis referred to kidney transplantation.

AIMS: Elevated calcitonin concentrations in dialysis patients had led to thyroidectomy for a benign C-cell hyperplasia in dozens of patients in the past decade. The prevalence of hypercalcitoninemia, however, has not been examined in a large cohort of dialysis patients. METHODS: We, therefore, measured calcitonin concentrations in 283 dialysis patients. We used different reference intervals: according to the threshold to perform further stimulation tests (i.e. > 10 pg/ml) and new reference intervals for the currently used assay (i.e. serum calcitonin concentration < 11.5 pg/ml in men and < 4.6 pg/ml in women). RESULTS: Median calcitonin concentrations of men and women were 12 (1; 290) pg/ml vs 2 pg/ml (1; 45), respectively, (p < 0.0001). The prevalence of hypercalcitoninemia was 10% in women and 58% in men using a cut-off of 10 pg/ml. Applying the new reference intervals 31% of women and 54% of men presented with hypercalcitoninemia. All patients with basal calcitonin concentrations above 50 pg/ml were men (highest calcitonin concentration was 290 pg/ml). Two of them underwent thyroidectomy and had C-cell hyperplasia. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of hypercalcitoninemia in dialysis patients amounts to 46%. It is more common in male than in female dialysis patients.

Natural course of Fabry disease: changing pattern of causes of death in FOS - Fabry Outcome Survey.

BACKGROUND: Fabry disease is a rare X-linked lysosomal storage disorder characterised by severe multisystemic involvement that leads to major organ failure and premature death in affected men and women. Over the past 7 years, the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS) has collected data on the natural history of Fabry disease, and the long-term efficacy and safety of enzyme-replacement therapy. This paper provides an update on the first analysis of FOS data. DESIGN: Baseline data on clinical manifestations and causes of death in a cohort of 1453 patients (699 male, 754 female) from 19 countries worldwide were analysed. Causes of death of affected relatives were analysed separately. RESULTS: The most frequently reported signs and symptoms of Fabry disease were neurological. Cardiac, ocular, gastrointestinal, dermatological, auditory and renal manifestations were also common. The principal causes of death among 181 affected relatives of patients in FOS (most of whom had died before 2001) were renal failure in males (42%) and cerebrovascular disease in females (25%). In contrast, of the 42 patients enrolled in FOS whose deaths were reported between 2001 and 2007, cardiac disease was the main cause of death in both male (34%) and female (57%) patients. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that the importance of renal disease as a cause of death in patients with Fabry disease is decreasing while the importance of cardiac disease is increasing. This pattern probably reflects improvements in the management of renal disease in patients with Fabry disease.

Cartilage biomarkers in hemodialysis patients and the effect of beta2-microglobulin on articular chondrocytes.

OBJECTIVE: Dialysis-related amyloidosis (DRA) is a severe complication of maintenance hemodialysis (HD). Given the predominant deposition of beta(2)-microglobulin (beta2m) fibrils on articular cartilage in early DRA, we investigated the significance of beta2m and its relationship to distinct cartilage biomarkers in early DRA diagnosis in HD patients. Furthermore, we assessed the effects of beta2m on articular chondrocytes in vitro. METHODS: Serum samples from 133 patients were collected before and after HD. Type II collagen cleavage product (C2C), procollagen II c-propeptide (CPII), aggrecan chondroitin sulfate 846 epitope (CS-486) and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Primary bovine articular chondrocytes were cultured as monolayers and incubated with beta2m at 1.5mg/l and 20mg/l. Cartilage glucosaminoglycan synthesis was measured by [(35)S]sulfate incorporation. mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-1beta, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-3 and -9 was measured by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS: Incubation with beta2m at 20mg/l significantly decreased matrix biosynthesis. PCR analysis revealed an increase of IL-1beta, as well as MMPs-3 and -9 on the mRNA level. C2C/CPII, CS-486 and COMP levels were increased only in a subset of patients without a significant correlation with beta2m concentrations. A subgroup analysis elucidated an increase in type II collagen degradation during the first years of HD, as shown by the elevation of C2C/CPII ratio. CONCLUSION: beta2m exerted anti-anabolic effects on articular chondrocytes in vitro and might be involved in cartilage degradation in HD patients. beta2m serum levels, however, did not reflect cartilage degradation in DRA. The assessment of C2C/CPII, CS-486 or COMP concentrations apparently has minor relevance in DRA diagnosis in HD patients. However, the increased type II collagen breakdown within 5 years after HD onset possibly mirrors the early stages of DRA. Thus, the C2C/CPII ratio could be employed in longitudinal studies, since it may reflect a risk for DRA related arthropathy development in a subset of patients.

Classification of chronic kidney disease by estimated glomerular filtration rate.

BACKGROUND: Serum creatinine concentration alone as a marker of kidney function is inadequate. Thus several equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) have been proposed within the last years. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In our study we compared three frequently used equations, the abbreviated modification of diet in renal disease (MDRD) formula, the extended MDRD formula and the recently proposed Mayo clinic equation in a large patient cohort. RESULTS: A total of 244 507 patients attending the Vienna General Hospital were evaluated for their kidney function and three equations for eGFR were compared. The median age of the patients was 51 years (ranging from 18.0 to 102.6 years) with 44.3% males (n = 108 527). We observed a significant increase of patients with eGFR classes four and five (according to Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) guidelines) with advanced age. Whereas approximately 1% of patients < 30 years presented with eGFR classes four and five (defined as eGFR < 30 mL min(-1) 1.73 m(-2)), this prevalence increased up to approximately 12% in patients at the age of 80 years or older. All three equations showed comparable results for eGFR classes four and five. The proportion of patients with mild to moderate impairment of kidney function is higher using both MDRD equations. CONCLUSIONS: The MDRD equations (particularly the abbreviated MDRD formula) result in considerably higher rates of eGFR classes two and three compared to the Mayo Clinic equation, while all three were comparable in classes four and five. This should be considered when eGFR is used in the diagnosis of chronic kidney disease.

Low-turnover bone disease in hypercalcemic hyperparathyroidism after kidney transplantation.

Hypercalcemia in persistent secondary hyperparathyroidism after kidney transplantation is considered to result from increased bone resorption. Bone biopsies' studies, however, have never been performed in these patients. Bone biopsies after double tetracycline labeling were obtained from 17 patients with hypercalcemic hyperparathyroidism and an estimated glomerular filtration rate > 30 mL/min/1.73 m2. Serologic bone markers, calcitriol, intact fibroblast growth factor-23 (iFGF-23), and serum and 24h urine concentration of calcium and phosphate were measured in all patients. Tubular maximum for phosphate corrected for GFR (TmP/GFR), and the fractional excretion of calcium (FeCa) were calculated. High-turnover renal osteodystrophy (ROD) was present in nine and low-turnover ROD in eight patients. The bone formation rate was significantly associated with bone alkaline phosphatase, c-telopeptide and osteocalcin. In patients with high turnover ROD, osteocalcin was also significantly higher than in patients with decreased bone formation. The FeCa was normal or below normal in 14/17 patients. TmP/GFR was below normal in all patients. Neither intact PTH nor iFGF-23 was associated with TmP/GFR, FeCa or any histomorphometric bone parameter. We conclude that hypercalcemia of posttransplant hyperparathyroidism can be associated with high or low turnover bone disease. Decreased calcium excretion suggests an additive tubular effect on hypercalcemia.

[Fabry disease: demographic data since introduction of enzyme replacement therapy]. / Morbus Fabry: Demografische Ubersicht seit Einführung der Enzymersatztherapie.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Fabry's disease is a rare, X-chromosome linked recessive lysosomal storage disorder. In its course multiple organ damage occurs, e.g. in skin, nerves, kidneys and heart. The disease not only markedly impairs the quality of life but also shortens life expectancy if untreated. As it is a rare and not widely known disease with considerable variability of its symptoms it is often not or only belatedly diagnosed. Since 2001, enzyme replacement has become available as an option in the causal treatment. It was the aim of this study to analyse the demography and clinical expression of the disease. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data were obtained from the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS), a Europe-wide data bank for the documentation of the disease's clinical course, on 262 patients (130 males, 132 females; mean age 37.5 and 34 years, respectively on entry in the FOS) in Germany, Switzerland and Austria. RESULTS: Typical symptoms - acroparesthesias, joint pain, hypohidrosis, fever and angiokeratoma - have their onset in childhood (mean age nine years). Symptoms start significantly earlier in males than females. The interval between onset of the first symptoms and establishment of the diagnosis is about 15 years. The severity of the clinical picture, as measured in the POS Mainz severity score index (MSSI), correlates significantly with the person's age (p = 0.0001). Main causes of morbidity and death in Fabry's disease are involvement of the kidneys or heart, the one or other occurring in 75% of patients. 171 patients (38 [65.3%]: 92 males, 79 females) are at present being continually treated with enzyme-replacement (ERT), agalsidase-a, i.e. 70.8% of all male and 59.8 of all female patients in the FOS. CONCLUSIONS: It is of great importance for the prognosis and quality that Fabry's disease is diagnosed as early as possible and treated adequately before the onset of organ damage. If the listed symptoms by themselves remain unexplained, Fabry's disease should be considered in the differential diagnosis. National and international observational studies, such as the FOS, significantly contribute to gaining important clinical data on this heterogeneous disease.

Anemia in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis.

AIMS: Anemia is commonly observed among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). No such information is available for patients with a history of systemic vasculitis. METHODS: We examined the prevalence of anemia, the response to therapy with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESA), and the association of anemia with the kidney function in clinically stable patients with Wegener's granulomatosis in a retrospective, single-center study. RESULTS: The mean hemoglobin concentration of 36 patients (mean age: 58 years; 15 female, 21 male; mean duration of disease: 4.6 years) was 13.0+/-2.1 g/dl, and the mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was 41+/-21 ml/min/1.73 m(2). 14 of 36 patients (38.8%) presented with anemia (hemoglobin concentration < 12 g/dl in women, < 13 g/dl in men, or ESA therapy). In patients with a CKD Stage 3 or 4, anemia was present about twice as much as compared to the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) population. The hemoglobin concentration, however, was not associated with a change of kidney function (p = 0.1578). CONCLUSIONS: We found a higher prevalence of anemia in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis, as compared to the NHANES III population. The hemoglobin concentrations showed no association with changes of kidney function.

Metabolic alkalosis in a hemodialysis patient--successful treatment with a proton pump inhibitor.

Hemodialysis patients develop metabolic acidosis due to their impaired excretion of daily produced protons (H+). The following report will show a rare case of severe metabolic alkalosis (predialysis pH 7.52, base excess (BE) +17) in a hemodialysis woman caused by self-provoked upper gastrointestinal H+ losses based on an eating disorder. Treatment with a proton pump inhibitor resulted in the normalization of acid/base homeostasis (predialysis pH 7.40, BE +1.6).

Calcitonin concentrations in patients with chronic kidney disease and medullary thyroid carcinoma or c-cell hyperplasia.

It is currently not known which level of pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin serum concentration indicates medullary thyroid carcinoma in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We examined CKD stage 3-5 patients who had total thyroidectomy because of a pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentration greater than 100 pg/ml, and tested the diagnostic performance of basal and pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin levels for differentiating medullary thyroid carcinoma and C-cell hyperplasia in this patient population. A total of 180 CKD patients presented with an elevated calcitonin level and had a pentagastrin stimulation test. Forty patients showed a maximum pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentration greater than 100 pg/ml, and 22 patients had a total thyroidectomy. Seven of these 22 patients presented with a medullary thyroid carcinoma, all other patients showed C-cell hyperplasia. Patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma showed higher unstimulated (212 pg/ml (36-577) vs 42 pg/ml (17-150); P < 0.001) and higher maximum pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentrations (862 pg/ml (431-2423) vs 141 pg/ml (102-471); P < 0.001) as compared to patients with C-cell hyperplasia. The sensitivity (100%) and specificity (93%) estimates suggested that a maximum pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentration greater than 400 pg/ml indicates the presence of medullary thyroid carcinoma in patients with CKD. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) analysis revealed an area under the ROC plot of 0.99 for maximum pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentrations. A maximum pentagastrin-stimulated calcitonin concentration greater than 400 pg/ml appears to be a clinically meaningful threshold for thyroidectomy.

Enzyme replacement therapy and renal function in 201 patients with Fabry disease.

AIM: Fabry disease is a rare lysosomal storage disorder caused by deficient activity of alpha-galactosidase A, resulting in progressive cellular accumulation of glycolipids, which may ultimately result in endstage renal disease. We examined the effects of enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) with Agalsidase-alpha on renal function using data from a large international database, the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS). METHODS: This analysis was based on 1,040 serum creatinine measurements in 201 patients with Fabry disease, aged 20 - 60 years, with serum creatinine concentrations of less than 2 mg/dl and duration of ERT of up to 4.7 years. Both pretreatment and treatment data were used to examine independent predictors of changes in serum creatinine. In a second approach longitudinal serum creatinine measurements from 1 year before treatment, at baseline and 1 and 2 years after the start of treatment were analyzed in 20 patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) Stage 2 and 3. RESULTS: We found an independent negative association between serum creatinine and time on Agalsidase-alpha treatment (p < 0.05). Renal function declined significantly (p < 0.05) in the year before treatment. After 1 year of treatment, however, the decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate had been halted, and renal function was preserved for up to 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, ERT with Agalsidase-alpha is associated with decrease of serum creatinine and may prevent the deterioration of renal function in patients with Fabry disease.

Hyperhidrosis: a new and often early symptom in Fabry disease. International experience and data from the Fabry Outcome Survey.

Hypohidrosis is a classic feature of Fabry disease; in contrast, hyperhidrosis has only been rarely described. The aim of the study is to characterise the baseline descriptive data on hyperhidrosis (frequency, age at onset, sex ratio and outcome with and without enzyme replacement therapy) in hemizygous male and heterozygous female patients with Fabry disease. We describe case histories of five patients with Fabry disease and hyperhidrosis seen at three different centres. We have also analysed a cohort of 21 paediatric patients in the UK and a large European cohort of patients enrolled in the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS). Five patients (three female, two male) with hyperhidrosis were originally identified, although each had additional symptoms related to Fabry disease. The age at onset of hyperhidrosis was less than 18 years in four cases. In the cohort of 21 paediatric patients (12 female, nine male), one female had hyperhidrosis; the age at onset of this symptom was 11 years. In the FOS cohort, 66 of 714 patients with Fabry disease had hyperhidrosis (44 of 369 females, 11.9%; 22 of 345 males, 6.4%). The female predominance was observed in seven of nine countries from which data were analysed. Hyperhidrosis is an increasingly recognised feature of the Fabry disease phenotype. It is more prevalent in females than in males and often appears in childhood or adolescence. The efficacy of enzyme replacement therapy on this recently recognised symptom should be assessed.

Hearing loss in Fabry disease: data from the Fabry Outcome Survey.

Hearing loss is a common symptom in Fabry disease, but neither its natural course nor its aetiology has been defined precisely. The aim of this study was to provide a detailed epidemiological description of hearing impairment in patients in the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS), which is the largest available database of Fabry patients. Questionnaires were completed by 566 Fabry patients, of whom 316 reported ear-related symptoms. Pure-tone audiograms from 86 patients, performed before starting enzyme replacement therapy, were analysed and compared with age- and sex-specific normal values (International Organization for Standardization, ISO 7029). When compared to an age-matched population (ISO 7029), 74% of patients had a threshold elevated above the 95th centile in at least one tested frequency. All frequencies were affected to a similar degree. However, only 14 patients (16%) were clinically affected by hearing impairment according to the age-independent World Health Organization (WHO) classification (mean threshold at 0.5, 1 and 2 kHz worse than 25 dB). Hearing loss was sensorineural in 63 patients (73%) of whom 7 patients (8%) had also a conductive component. One patient had a purely conductive hearing loss. Episodes of sudden hearing loss seemed to occur more frequently than in the general population. Men were affected earlier and more severely than women. Hearing in Fabry disease is significantly worse than in an age-matched general population but leads to clinically relevant hearing impairment in only 16% of cases. It resembles accelerated presbycusis with an additional Fabry-specific strial-type hearing loss.

Agalsidase alpha and hearing in Fabry disease: data from the Fabry Outcome Survey.

Fabry disease is an X-linked lysosomal storage disorder characterized by multi-organ dysfunction, including hearing loss - mainly sensorineural. The recent introduction of enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) has resulted in improvements in renal and cardiac function, pain and quality of life. One study has also suggested small improvements in high-frequency hearing. In this paper, we study the effect of ERT on hearing in patients in the Europe-wide database - the Fabry Outcome Survey (FOS). Twenty-six patients in FOS had pure-tone audiometry performed up to 6 months before starting ERT with agalsidase alpha and after a median of 12 months of treatment. We assessed changes in hearing thresholds, expressed as deviations from the 50th centile of the normal population (International Organization for Standardization ISO 7029) to correct for age-related non-specific hearing deterioration. Hearing did not change significantly in ears with normal hearing (less than 10 dB deviation from the 50th centile of ISO 7029) or those with severe hearing loss (more than 40 dB deviation from the 50th centile of ISO 7029) at baseline. In ears with a mild or moderate hearing loss at baseline, hearing thresholds, expressed as deviations from the normal 50th centile, improved significantly by 4-7 dB at most frequencies (P < 0.05). Agalsidase alpha stabilizes, and possibly improves, hearing in Fabry patients who have not already progressed to severe hearing loss. Further follow-up of these patients will determine the longer-term effects of ERT.

Intravenous iron therapy: well-tolerated, yet not harmless.

In the majority of patients with chronic renal failure, it is essential to substitute erythropoietic agents and iron to maintain a haemoglobin level above 11 g dL-1. Intravenous iron is more effective than oral iron. Substitution of intravenous iron is mainly performed using iron(III)-hydroxide-sucrose complex (iron sucrose) and iron(III)-sodium-gluconate in sucrose (iron gluconate), and is, in general, well-tolerated. Nonetheless, intravenous iron therapy has effects on endothelial cells, polymorphonuclear leucocytes and cytokines which are most likely related to non-transferrin bound labile iron. These effects suggest a role of iron in infection or atherosclerosis. Yet, not all available data support the association of iron with infection and atherosclerosis. A recent trial showed that iron sucrose is safe when given as treatment for iron deficiency or for maintenance of iron stores. Nevertheless, iron therapy should be handled with caution but its use should not be feared whenever indicated.

Anaemia after renal transplantation.

Anaemia is a frequent complication among long-term renal transplant recipients. A prevalence of approximately 40% has been reported in several studies. If renal function declines to stage 5 kidney disease, the prevalence of anaemia in kidney transplants is even higher. A positive correlation between haemoglobin concentration and creatinine clearance has been reported, which is a function of endogenous erythropoietin production by the functioning graft. Inflammation related to a retained kidney graft may cause hypo-responsiveness to erythropoietic agents once kidney transplant recipients return to dialysis. Furthermore, the use of azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil and sirolimus may be associated with post-transplant anaemia. Along with erythropoietin deficiency, depletion of iron stores is one of the major reasons for anaemia in the kidney transplant population. The proportion of hypochromic red blood cells appears to be a useful parameter to measure iron supply and utilization as well as to estimate mortality risks in kidney transplant recipients. While anaemia is an important cardiovascular risk-factor after transplantation, our data suggest that anaemia is not associated with mortality and graft loss. Nevertheless, inadequate attention is paid so far to the management of anaemia after renal transplantation. A promising future aspect for risk reduction of cardiovascular disease includes the effect of erythropoietic agents on endothelial progenitor cells.