U.S. farmers' opinions on the use of nontraditional water sources for agricultural activities.

Water is a key resource for agricultural production in the United States. Due to projected changes in water availability across the country, long-term sustainability of agricultural production may rely on finding alternatives to traditional water sources. The aim of this study was to assess farmers' opinions on the use of nontraditional water sources (e.g., agricultural runoff, treated wastewater, recycled water, produced water, untreated surface water, and brackish surface and groundwater) for agricultural activities. A survey was distributed to farmers (n = 746) in the Mid-Atlantic and Southwest regions of the United States (U.S.) about water availability and nontraditional irrigation water perceptions. Chi-square, Fisher's exact tests, f-tests, and multinomial and ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted. Of farmers surveyed, 80% (431/543) considered the use of nontraditional water sources to be at least moderately important and 61% (444/727) would use nontraditional water if given the option. Each of the following factors individually increased the likelihood that a farmer considered nontraditional water very important for agriculture: Farmers who lived in the Southwest region compared to the Mid-Atlantic, farmers who were concerned about water availability compared with those who were not, farmers with a graduate or professional degree compared to those with less education, farmers with access to nontraditional water, and farmers with some knowledge of nontraditional water compared to those with no reported knowledge. Concern about water availability and knowledge of nontraditional water sources were significantly associated with willingness to use these water sources (p < 0.001 for both). Water quality, food safety and health risks were the main concerns regarding nontraditional water use across both regions. Willingness to use nontraditional water increased significantly if the water quality was proven to be as good or better than farmers' current water sources (63% vs. 84%; p < 0.001). Projects focused on nontraditional water use in agriculture should be regionally tailored as our data found significant differences between farmers in two distinct U.S. regions.

Understanding grower perceptions and attitudes on the use of nontraditional water sources, including reclaimed or recycled water, in the semi-arid Southwest United States.

The use of nontraditional water sources, including reclaimed or recycled water, has become a desirable option to meet increasing demands in water stressed regions. In the Southwest United States, utilization of alternative water sources is becoming increasingly common, including use for landscape irrigation, environmental enhancement, cooling and power generation, potable reuse, and as a source water for agricultural irrigation. While much research has gone into identifying public perception towards water reuse schemes, little attention has been given to understanding grower attitudes, perceptions, and knowledge on the use of nontraditional water, including reclaimed water, in agriculture and how that may influence grower acceptance and production practices. This unique study utilized a needs assessment survey of growers (n = 521) within the Southwest region of the United States to gain an understanding of industry attitudes and needs regarding nontraditional water in agriculture. Results indicate that the majority of survey respondents were concerned with water availability (67.49%) yet less than half (48.30%) thought using a nontraditional water source in agriculture was 'very important'. Interestingly, respondents rated irrigation of 'food crops' third (42.20%) among agricultural activities for which they would be willing to use nontraditional water sources, behind irrigation of forage crops (61.60%) and dust control (61.60%). The importance of the use of nontraditional water sources in agriculture was influenced mostly by farm size (p = 0.007) and primary water source (p = 0.016), and the level of education was significant in respondent's level of concern over water availability (p = 0.021). Information on the quality of nontraditional water sources, showing that it is as good or better than respondents current sources, was found to shift rejection and uncertainty towards acceptance by 16.04%. The results of this study provide insight into perceived risks, willingness to use, drivers and constraints to grower adoption, and preferred methods of education regarding water reuse in agriculture. These findings can be used by water managers and planners to aid in the adoption of nontraditional waters, including reclaimed or recycled water, in agriculture thus extending water resources, securing food supplies, and protecting public health.

Groundwater level changes with a focus on agricultural areas in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, 2002-2016.

Climate change impacts all water sources, including high quality groundwater that supplies agricultural irrigation in many regions of the United States. This study assessed groundwater level changes in the U.S. Mid-Atlantic region with a focus on cultivated areas. Trends of groundwater level were estimated using linear regression, and examined for shallow, medium, and deep depths across physiographic regions of Mid-Atlantic. A hotspot analysis was conducted to identify spatial clusters of wells with rising or declining groundwater levels. In addition, differences in the percentage of cultivated area with declining groundwater between cultivated land categories was examined at the county level. From 2002-2016, the Mid-Atlantic region had an overall decline in groundwater level (0.06 m/yr, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.09) although groundwater changes varied by physiographic regions. The Coastal Plain physiographic region was dominated by declining groundwater wells (48%) and had the most significant groundwater level declines (0.23 m/yr, 95% CI: 0.19, 0.26). Significant groundwater level rises were detected in Southern Virginia adjacent to the Chesapeake Bay (0.92 m/yr on average), which could be due to the cessation of groundwater withdrawal from one of the region's largest groundwater users. In the Mid-Atlantic region, shallow groundwater was found to have slight rising trends (0.08 m, p < 0.05) while deeper groundwater showed distinctive declining trends (1.36 m, p < 0.05) between 2002 and 2016. There were significantly more cultivated areas with declining groundwater levels (88% vs. 35%, p < 0.05) in counties with high percentages of cropland (> 50%) compared to areas covered by less cropland. As climate and human pressures increase, it will be critical to identify and evaluate alternative water sources, such as reclaimed water, to sustain agricultural production and protect groundwater resources.