Predictors of involuntary and voluntary emotional episodic memories of virtual reality scenarios in Veterans with and without PTSD.

This study investigated predictors of involuntary and voluntary memories of stressful virtual reality scenarios. Thirty-two veterans of the two Persian Gulf Wars completed verbal memory tests and diagnostic assessments. They were randomly assigned to a Recounting (16) or a Suppression (16) condition. After immersion in the VR scenarios, the Recounting group described the scenarios and the Suppression group suppressed thoughts of the scenarios. One week later, participants completed surprise voluntary memory tests and another thought suppression task. The best predictors of voluntary memory were verbal memory ability, dissociation, and to a lesser extent, physiological arousal before and after scenarios. Dissociation and physiological stress responses selectively affected memory for neutral elements. Higher distress during scenarios impaired voluntary memory but increased the frequency of involuntary memories. Physiological stress responses promoted more frequent involuntary memories immediately after the scenarios. More frequent initial involuntary memories, tonic physiological arousal, and stronger emotional responses to dangerous events predicted difficulty inhibiting involuntary memories at follow-up. The effects of thought suppression were transient and weaker than those of other variables. The findings suggest that posttraumatic amnesia and involuntary memories of adverse events are more related to memory ability and emotional and physiological stress responses than to post-exposure suppression.

The Effects of Worry in Daily Life: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study Supporting the Tenets of the Contrast Avoidance Model.

The contrast avoidance model (CAM) suggests that worry increases and sustains negative emotion to prevent a negative emotional contrast (sharp upward shift in negative emotion) and increase the probability of a positive contrast (shift toward positive emotion). In Study 1, we experimentally validated momentary assessment items (N = 25). In Study 2, participants with generalized anxiety disorder (N = 31) and controls (N = 37) were prompted once per hour regarding their worry, thought valence, and arousal 10 times a day for 8 days. Higher worry duration, negative thought valence, and uncontrollable train of thoughts predicted feeling more keyed up concurrently and sustained anxious activation 1 hr later. More worry, feeling keyed up, and uncontrollable train of thoughts predicted lower likelihood of a negative emotional contrast in thought valence and higher likelihood of a positive emotional contrast in thought valence 1 hr later. Findings support the prospective ecological validity of CAM. Our findings suggest that naturalistic worry reduces the likelihood of a sharp increase in negative affect and does so by increasing and sustaining anxious activation.

Delineating Characteristics of Maladaptive Repetitive Thought: Development and Preliminary Validation of the Perseverative Cognitions Questionnaire.

Worry, rumination, and obsessive thinking are theorized to differ on temporal orientation, positive perceived function, degree of intrusiveness, and discordance with one's self-concept. However, prior findings with respect to such differences may be due to method variance of the measures used and/or inclusion of items confounded by diagnostic symptoms. Accurately capturing differences between types of perseverative thought linked to psychopathology and understanding whether such aspects are common across disorders or specific to some may be important to designing effective treatments for them. Two studies are presented detailing the development and validation of the Perseverative Cognitions Questionnaire (PCQ). The PCQ is a 45-item self-report measure that assesses six dimensional characteristics of worry, rumination, and obsessive thinking previously found to discriminate these thought styles: Lack of Controllability, Preparing for the Future, Expecting the Worst, Searching for Causes/Meaning, Dwelling on the Past, and Thinking Discordant with Ideal Self. Factor structure of the PCQ was established using principal components, exploratory factor, and confirmatory factor analyses. PCQ scales exhibited differential convergence with measures of perseverative thought and psychopathology. The PCQ also demonstrated acceptable retest correlations across 1- and 2-week periods, and incremental validity when predicting symptoms of anxiety, depression, and obsessive compulsive disorder.

Returning to tricyclic antidepressants for depression during childbearing: clinical and dosing challenges.

Managing depression and anxiety during pregnancy and the postpartum period is challenging. Both pharmacological treatment and the lack thereof can pose threats to a fetus. SSRIs are the drugs of choice for use during pregnancy, but there is considerable evidence for the safety and efficacy of older antidepressants during pregnancy as well. This study highlights a single case of the use of the tricyclic nortriptyline during pregnancy and postpartum. The subject involved had an unexpectedly high ratio of serum level to drug dose during the postpartum period. We monitored the subject for a significantly greater portion of the postpartum period than has been done in previous studies, and explored medical and lifestyle changes that could account for the level-to-dose ratios we observed. Differences in smoking patterns, coupled with the patient's status as a genetic poor metabolizer, were the most likely explanations.

Clinical experiences in conducting empirically supported treatments for generalized anxiety disorder.

Knowledge of the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) predominantly derives from randomized controlled trials (RCTs). However, there may be unique or complex issues encountered in practice, but not necessarily in the context of a controlled clinical trial. Therefore, launching a systematic dialogue between researcher and practicing clinician can be instrumental in augmenting evidence-based therapies through identification of variables that promote and interfere with clinical effectiveness. Through an initiative sponsored by the American Psychological Association's Divisions 12 (Society for Clinical Psychology) and 29 (Psychotherapy), this study aimed to examine clinical experiences conducting CBT for GAD. The participants were 260 psychotherapists who completed an online survey on assessment and therapeutic intervention utilization and their experience of factors that limit successful GAD treatment and symptom reduction. The majority of respondents reported 20 years or less experience using ESTs for GAD, typically treating clients in outpatient clinics, treatment centers, and private practice. Some of the most commonly used interventions address clients' maladaptive cognitions and elevated anxiety and muscle tension typical of GAD. Approximately one half of respondents reported incorporating integrative techniques into treatment. Factors perceived as limiting effective GAD treatment included severity and chronicity of GAD, presence of comorbid conditions, stressful home and work environments, client motivation and resistance to treatment, and issues encountered when executing therapy techniques. This study provides researchers with clinically derived directions for future empirical investigation into enhancing efficacy of GAD treatment.

A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder with integrated techniques from emotion-focused and interpersonal therapies.

OBJECTIVE: Recent models suggest that generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms may be maintained by emotional processing avoidance and interpersonal problems. METHOD: This is the first randomized controlled trial to test directly whether cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) could be augmented with the addition of a module targeting interpersonal problems and emotional processing. Eighty-three primarily White participants (mean age = 37) with a principle diagnosis of GAD were recruited from the community. Participants were assigned randomly to CBT plus supportive listening (n = 40) or to CBT plus interpersonal and emotional processing therapy (n = 43) within a study using an additive design. Doctoral-level psychologists with full-time private practices treated participants in an outpatient clinic. Using blind assessors, participants were assessed at pretreatment, posttreatment, 6-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up with a composite of self-report and assessor-rated GAD symptom measures (the Penn State Worry Questionnaire; T. J. Meyer, M. L. Miller, R. L. Metzger, & T. D. Borkovec, 1990; Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale; M. Hamilton, 1959; assessor severity rating; State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait Version; C. D. Spielberger, R. L. Gorsuch, R. Lushene, P. R. Vagg, & G. A. Jacobs, 1983) as well as with indices of clinically significant change. RESULTS: Mixed models analysis of all randomized participants showed very large within-treatment effect sizes for both treatments (CI = [-.40, -.28], d = 1.86) with no significant differences at post (CI = [-.09, .07], d = .07) or 2-year follow-up (CI = [-.01, .01]), d = .12). There was also no statistical difference between compared treatments on clinically significant change based on chi-square analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Interpersonal and emotional processing techniques may not augment CBT for all GAD participants. Trial Registry name: Clinical Trials.gov, Identifier: NCT00951652.

A review of technology-assisted self-help and minimal contact therapies for anxiety and depression: is human contact necessary for therapeutic efficacy?

Technology-based self-help and minimal contact therapies have been proposed as effective and low-cost interventions for anxiety and mood disorders. The present article reviews the literature published before 2010 on these treatments for anxiety and depression using self-help and decreased therapist-contact interventions. Treatment studies are examined by disorder as well as amount of therapist contact, ranging from self-administered therapy and predominantly self-help interventions to minimal contact therapy where the therapist is actively involved in treatment but to a lesser degree than traditional therapy and predominantly therapist-administered treatments involving regular contact with a therapist for a typical number of sessions. In the treatment of anxiety disorders, it is concluded that self-administered and predominantly self-help interventions are most effective for motivated clients. Conversely, minimal-contact therapies have demonstrated efficacy for the greatest variety of anxiety diagnoses when accounting for both attrition and compliance. Additionally, predominantly self-help computer-based cognitive and behavioral interventions are efficacious in the treatment of subthreshold mood disorders. However, therapist-assisted treatments remain optimal in the treatment of clinical levels of depression. Although the most efficacious amount of therapist contact varies by disorder, computerized treatments have been shown to be a less-intensive, cost-effective way to deliver empirically validated treatments for a variety of psychological problems.

A review of technology-assisted self-help and minimal contact therapies for drug and alcohol abuse and smoking addiction: is human contact necessary for therapeutic efficacy?

Technology-based self-help and minimal contact therapies have been proposed as effective and low-cost interventions for addictive disorders, such as nicotine, alcohol, and drug abuse and addiction. The present article reviews the literature published before 2010 on computerized treatments for drug and alcohol abuse and dependence and smoking addiction. Treatment studies are examined by disorder as well as amount of therapist contact, ranging from self-administered therapy and predominantly self-help interventions to minimal contact therapy where the therapist is actively involved in treatment but to a lesser degree than traditional therapy and predominantly therapist-administered treatments involving regular contact with a therapist for a typical number of sessions. In the treatment of substance use and abuse it is concluded that self-administered and predominantly self-help computer-based cognitive and behavioral interventions are efficacious, but some therapist contact is important for greater and more sustained reductions in addictive behavior.