Biological denitrification of brines from membrane treatment processes using an upflow sludge blanket (USB) reactor.

This paper investigates denitrification of brines originating from membrane treatment of groundwater in an upflow sludge blanket (USB) reactor, a biofilm reactor without carrier. A simulated brine wastewater was prepared from tap water and contained a nitrate concentration of 125 mg/l as N and a total salt concentration of about 1%. In order to select for a suitable energy source for denitrification, two electron donors were compared: one promoting precipitation of calcium compounds (ethanol), while the other (acetic acid), no precipitation was expected. After extended operation to reach steady state, the sludge from the two reactors showed very different mineral contents. The VSS/TSS ratio in the ethanol fed reactor was 0.2, i.e., 80% mineral content, while the VSS/TSS ratio in the acetic acid fed reactor was 0.9, i.e., 10% mineral content. In spite of the low mineral content, the sludge from the acetic acid fed reactor showed remarkably excellent granulation and settling characteristics. Although the denitrification performance of the acetic acid fed reactor was similar to that of the ethanol fed reactor, there was a huge difference in the sludge production due to mineral precipitation, with the corresponding negative aspects including increased costs of sludge treatment and disposal and moreover, instability and difficulties in reactor operation (channeling). These arguments make acetic acid a much more suitable candidate for brine denitrification, despite previous findings observed in groundwater denitrification regarding the essential role of a relatively high sludge mineral fraction for stable and effective USB reactor operation. Based on a comparison between two denitrification reactors with and without salt addition and using acetic acid as the electron donor, it was concluded that the reason for the excellent sludge settling characteristics found in the acetic acid fed reactor is the positive effects of higher salinity on granular sludge formation.

Encapsulation of bacterial cells in electrospun microtubes.

Encapsulation of whole microbial cells in microtubes for use in bioremediation of pollutants in water systems was the main focus of this investigation. Coelectrospinning of a core polymeric solution with bacterial cells and a shell polymer solution using a spinneret with two coaxial capillaries resulted in microtubes with porous walls. The ability of the microtube's structure to support cell attachment and maintain enzymatic activity and proliferation of the encapsulated microbial cells was examined. The results obtained show that the encapsulated cells maintain some of their phosphatase, ß-galactosidase and denirification activity and are able to respond to conditions that induce these activities. This study demonstrates electrospun microtubes are a suitable platform for the immobilization of intact microbial cells.

Changes in ammonia oxidiser population during transition to low pH in a biofilm reactor starting with Nitrosomonas europaea.

Recent experiments in our laboratory using both biofilm and suspended biomass reactors have demonstrated high rate nitrification at low pH with known autotrophic nitrifying bacteria originating from wastewater treatment plants refuting previous assumptions that nitrification is significantly inhibited at low pH. Since much of the earlier microbiological work regarding ammonia oxidising bacteria (AOB) physiology was carried out using Nitrosomonas europaea, this model bacterium's capability for high rate nitrification at low pH in a continuous biofilm reactor was tested. A biofilm reactor filled with sintered glass particles was inoculated with a pure culture of N. europaea. The reactor was first operated to high nitrification rates under conditions favourable to N. europaea (pH > 7; high ammonium concentrations). To eliminate inhibitory concentrations of nitrite at low pH, an enriched culture of Nitrospira (a nitrite oxidising bacterium) was then added. The transition from neutral to acidic conditions was attempted by sharply lowering the nitrification rate and by using a feeding solution containing insufficient buffer for complete nitrification. As opposed to other successful transitions, the pH in the N. europaea/Nitrospira reactor initially dropped only slightly and maintained pH > 6 for over two weeks. The reactor reached pH 4.5 only after four weeks. FISH results showed that while the percent of AOB and Nitrospira to eubacteria remained relatively constant at 51.1 +/- 8.2% and 40.8 +/- 6.4%, respectively, the AOB community changed completely in 60 days from 100% N. europaea to 100% Nitrosomonas oligotropha. Even though N. oligotropha was not intentionally introduced into the reactor, it is apparently much better adapted to conditions of low pH.

Treatment of dairy wastewater using a vertical bed with passive aeration.

The aim of this research was to investigate the feasibility of treating liquid dairy wastes by a vertical bed equipped with an innovative passive aeration system. The vertical bed (32 liter) was operated by recirculating consecutive batches of liquid waste in the column. Batches of liquid waste were applied at two different rates: 1) each batch was recirculated for 72 hours, and 2) each batch was recirculated for 24 hours. Settled liquid dairy wastes (5000 mg l(-1) COD, 2000 mg l(-1) BOD and 2500 mg l(-1) TSS) were used in the experiments. When the reactor operated with each batch recirculating for 72 hours, the BOD and COD reduction were 66% and 40%, respectively. The vertical bed operated successfully without the need for an additional rest period. The main removal was observed to take place during the first 20 hours. No biomass or solids accumulation was observed indicating that the remaining 52 hours of recirculation were actually used for bed regeneration, i.e. integrated rest period. When the reactor operated with each batch recirculating for 24 hours, the system clogged after 21 days. An additional 24 day rest period was needed in order to free 94% of the initial void space. In this mode, the BOD and COD reduction were 67% and 47%, respectively. The overall COD removal in a complete operational cycle (feeding period followed by a rest period) was 467 g COD m(-3) d(-1) (996 g COD m(-2) d(-1)). This value is 1.4 higher than the COD removal obtained in the 72 hour per batch mode and shows the advantage of conventional vertical bed operation of intensive feeding followed by rest period rather than a rest period integrated into the feeding cycle.

High nitrification rate at low pH in a fluidized bed reactor with chalk as the biofilm carrier.

A typical steady state bulk pH of about 5 was established in a nitrifying fluidized bed with chalk as the only buffer agent. In spite of the low pH, high rate nitrification was observed with the nitrification kinetic parameters in the chalk reactor similar to those of biological reactors operating at pH>7. Various methods were used to determine the reasons for high rate nitrification at such low pH including (i) determination of bacterial species, (ii) microsensor measurements in the biofilm, and (iii) comparison of nitrification performance at low pH with a non-chalk fluidized bed reactor. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using existing 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes showed common nitrifying bacteria in the low pH chalk reactor. The prevalent nitrifying bacteria were identified in the Nitrosomonas oligotropha, Nitrosomonas europeae/eutropha, Nitrosospira and Nitrospira related groups, all well known nitrifiers. Microelectrode measurements showed that the pH in the biofilm was low and similar to that of the bulk pH. Finally, reactor performance using a non-chalk biofilm carrier (sintered glass) with the same bacterial inoculum also showed high rate nitrification below pH 5. The results suggest that inhibition of nitrification at low pH is highly overestimated.

Biological granulated activated carbon fluidized bed reactor for atrazine remediation.

To show that an adsorbing biofilm carrier (GAC) can be advantageous for atrazine bioremediation over a non-adsorbing carrier, fluidized bed (FB) reactors were operated under atrazine limiting concentrations using Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP as the atrazine degrading bacteria. The following interrelated subjects were investigated: 1) atrazine adsorption to GAC under conditions of atrazine partial penetration in the biofilm, 2) differences in atrazine degradation rates and 3) stability of atrazine biodegradation under non-sterile anoxic conditions in the GAC reactor versus a reactor with a non-adsorbing biofilm carrier. Results from batch adsorption tests together with modeling best described the biofilm as patchy in nature with covered and non-biofilm covered areas. Under conditions of atrazine partial penetration in the biofilm, atrazine adsorption occurs in the non-covered areas and is consequently desorbed at the base of the biofilm substantially increasing the active biofilm surface area. The double flux of atrazine to the biofilm in the GAC reactor results in lower effluent atrazine concentrations as compared to a FB reactor with a non-adsorbing carrier. Moreover, under non-sterile denitrification conditions, atrazine degradation stability was found to be much higher (several months) using GAC as a biofilm carrier while non-adsorbing carrier reactors showed sharp deterioration within 30 days due to contamination of non-atrazine degrading bacteria.

UASB reactor for domestic wastewater treatment at low temperatures: a comparison between a classical UASB and hybrid UASB-filter reactor.

The performance of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor and a hybrid UASB-filter reactor was investigated and compared for the treatment of domestic wastewater at different operational temperatures (28, 20, 14 and 10 degrees C) and loading rates. For each temperature studied a constant CODt removal was observed as long as the upflow velocity was lower than 0.35 m/h. At these upflow velocities similar removals were observed for both reactor types at 28 and 20 degrees C, 82 and 72% respectively. However, at 14 and 10 degrees C the UASB reactor showed a better COD removal (70% and 48%, respectively) than the hybrid reactor (60% and 38%). COD removal resulted from biological degradation and solids accumulation in the reactors. At 28 degrees C, a constant 200 g sludge mass was observed in both reactors and COD removal was attributed to biological degradation only. At lower temperatures, solids accumulation was observed in addition to biological degradation with an increase in reactor sludge as the temperature decreased. The decrease in biological degradation at lower temperatures was offset by solids accumulation and explains the similar overall COD removal efficiency observed at 28 degrees C, 20 degrees C and 14 degrees C. The decrease in temperature was also followed by an increase in the effluent TSS concentration in both reactors. At 14 and 10 degrees C a lower effluent TSS concentration and better performance was observed in the UASB reactor.

Temperature effect on UASB reactor operation for domestic wastewater treatment in temperate climate regions.

The performance of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor was investigated for the treatment of domestic wastewater at different operational temperatures (28, 20, 14 and 10 degrees C) and loading rates. For each temperature studied a constant COD(t) removal was observed as long as the upflow velocity was lower than 0.35 m/h: 82% at 28 degrees C, 68% at 14 degrees C and 44% at 10 degrees C. At 20 degrees C the COD removal increased with the HRT, reaching similar values as at 28 degrees C for long HRT. At upflow velocities higher than 0.35 m/h, a reduction in total COD removal was observed due to washout of influent TSS. At 28 degrees C, a constant 200 g sludge mass was observed and COD removal was attributed to biological degradation only. At lower temperatures, COD removal resulted from degradation and solids accumulation in the reactor. The increase in reactor sludge was greater as the temperature decreased and explains the similar overall COD removal efficiency at 28 degrees C, 20 degrees C and 14 degrees C. During the transition from winter to summer conditions (10 degrees C to 28 degrees C), methane production initially increased due to the degradation of accumulated solids. Afterwards, methane production gradually declined and an increase in COD removal was observed, indicating that the TSS accumulated during the winter was exhausted and influent degradation remained.

Production of gaseous nitrogen compounds in a novel process for ammonium removal.

The production of gaseous nitrogen compounds, particularly the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide, was investigated in a novel process for ammonium removal from wastewater. The process is based on the adsorption of ammonium on zeolite followed by bioregeneration. The zeolite serves the dual purpose of an ion exchanger and a physical carrier for nitrifying bacteria which bio-regenerate the ammonium saturated mineral. An analysis of the nitrifying population composition in the reactor fed with simulated secondary effluent (NH4+ = 50 mg/l) revealed that about half of the bacteria in the biofilm were common ammonium oxidizers Nitrosococcus mobilis and Nitrosomonas, while the other half were nitrite oxidizers. The amount of nitrogen losses, under different conditions, and the identification of the emitted gases (N2 or N2O) were investigated in two sets of experiments: (I) batch experiments using biomass originating from the ion exchange reactor with and without the addition of nitrite, and (II) continuous experiments using the ion exchange reactor with zeolite as the biomass carrier. In the batch experiments, nitrite and oxygen concentrations were determined as the major parameters responsible for the formation of gaseous nitrogen gas during ammonia oxidation by autotrophic bacteria. Continuous experiments showed that the major parameter significantly affecting nitrogen losses was the amount of ammonium adsorbed by the zeolite during the ion exchange phase. The amount of ammonium adsorbed determines the ammonium concentration during the initial period of bioregeneration, which in turn directly influences oxygen demand and the resulting concentrations of oxygen and nitrite. It was concluded that the formation of nitrogen gas compounds in the ion exchange/bioregeneration process can be eliminated by adjusting the operational regime to have a shorter adsorption phase resulting in smaller amounts of ammonium adsorbed per cycle.

Nitrification utilizing CaCO3 as the buffering agent.

Nitrification utilizing chalk (calcium carbonate) as the buffering agent was investigated. Three different fluidized bed reactor configurations were examined in order to study the effect of reactor layout on nitrification and concomitant chalk dissolution. The first system consisted of two interconnected columns with high recycle rate, one containing zeolite as the carrier for the nitrifying biomass and the other chalk as the buffering agent. The second reactor system consisted of a single column containing both zeolite and chalk particles. In the third system, nitrification was carried out in a single column where chalk particles were used both as the carrier for the biomass and as the buffer. Results showed that only the reactor with chalk acting as both the buffering agent and the biomass carrier could be operated without external buffer (NaHCO3) addition. This system operated at high ammonium removal rates of up to 2.5 g N l(-1) reactor d(-1) even though the bulk solution of the reactor had a low pH of 5.5. The high nitrification efficiency at this low pH was probably mainly a result of a favorable microenvironment surrounding the nitrifying biomass attached to the chalk.

Ammonium removal using a novel unsaturated flow biological filter with passive aeration.

A novel vertical bed process for the removal of ammonium from secondary effluents, using a "passive air pump", has been developed. The process is based on convective aeration caused by a fill and draw operational sequence, and combines the advantages of the vertical wetlands concept with the high loading rates typically associated with trickling filters. Experiments were carried out in a 500-l reactor using simulative effluents and actual municipal secondary effluents. A maximal ammonium removal rate of 1100 g N/m2 reactor/d was achieved using simulative effluents and an effective gravel size of 0.96 mm. At all hydraulic loads applied, the nitrification rate was found to be limited by the oxygen transfer rate. The small-size medium used with simulative effluents clogged when using actual municipal secondary effluents. Two other media (2.46 mm and 4.31 mm) did not clog during the entire experimental period and a maximum removal load of 300 g N/m2 reactor/d was achieved. This value is still much higher than typical rates reported for conventional vertical beds.

Chalk as the carrier for nitrifying biofilm in a fluidized bed reactor.

A fluidized bed reactor for nitrification with chalk as the biomass carrier and the sole buffer agent was studied. Chalk dissolution in the reactor was found to follow the stoichiometric ratio of 1 mole of CaCO3 dissolved for each mole of NH4+ oxidized. Three batches of chalk, each one having a different dissolution rate, were used to replace the dissolved chalk. The three dissolution rates resulted in three different steady state pH levels in the reactor (4.7-6.6) and nitrification rates. Nitrification was found to be limited by either the chalk dissolution rate or dissolved oxygen concentration depending on the type of chalk used. A maximal nitrification rate of 1.44 g NH4(+)-N/l reactor.d was observed. The average cell yield was 0.1 g cells/g N oxidized, similar to the cell yield during reactor start-up when the pH was 7. The specific ammonium oxidation rates varied between 0.08 and 0.15 mg NH4(+)-N oxidized/mg protein.h, values which are in the reported range for nitrification at pH 7 to 8. Oxygen update rate (OUR) results indicated that the major mechanism responsible for the high nitrification rate observed in the reactor operating at low pH seems to be the favorable microenvironment provided by the chalk.

A simple model describing nitrate and nitrite reduction in fluidized bed biological reactors.

A uniquely simple model is developed to describe the NO(3) (-) and NO(2) (-) concentration profiles within a dentrification fluidized bed biological reactor. This simple model is compared to experimental data, and to a more complex model similar to those previously proposed in the literature. The simple model fits the experimental data at least as well as the more complex model. (c) 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Biotechnol Bioeng 54: 543-548, 1997.

Precipitation potential as a major factor in the formation of granular sludge in an upflow sludge-blanket reactor for denitrification of drinking water.

The effects of the chemical composition of water on granular sludge formation and characteristics in a denitrifying upflow sludge-blanket (USB) reactor were studied. Denitrification of drinking water showed different biomass sludge characteristics when the reactor was fed with groundwater as opposed to surface water USB reactors fed with groundwater produced granules with good settling characteristics, SVI (sludge volume index) values lower than 30 ml/g, and high reactor biomass concentrations (20-25 g/l), while surface-water-fed reactors exhibited lower biomass concentrations (10-15 g/l) due to poor settling characteristics (SVI values of 50-90 ml/g). Sludge granules from the reactor fed with surface water had a low mineral content of between 10% and 20% as compared to a mineral content of 25%-50% in the groundwater reactor. The larger mineral content in the groundwater-fed reactor was due to a greater precipitation potential, i.e. higher concentrations of calcium and alkalinity present in groundwater combined with the release of alkalinity and subsequent increase in pH caused by biological denitrification. Verification for this phenomenon was established by enriching surface water with calcium and alkalinity, which increased the reactor's precipitation potential from 15 mg/l to 40 mg/l (as CaCO3). The granules obtained from the reactor fed with enriched surface water had a high mineral content of between 40% and 50% and very low SVI values, contributing to improved granule-settling characteristics and reactor stability.