Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with bovine tuberculosis in cattle in Eastern Bhutan.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a chronic zoonotic disease affecting cattle of all age groups including wild animals. It poses a significant threat to public health and high economic losses to dairy farmers. While the disease has been eradicated from most of the developed countries through extensive surveillance, testing and culling strategy, it is endemic in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East countries. Currently, there is limited research regarding the prevalence of bTB in cattle in Bhutan. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of bTB in cattle in six districts of eastern Bhutan. A two-stage probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling strategy was used to determine the number of animals from which serum samples needed to be collected in each district and sub-district. All farms and cattle for sampling were randomly selected from the data in the annual livestock census of 2020. The samples were tested using bTB ELISA test kit. The seroprevalence and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Logistic regression models were constructed to assess the influence of various individual animal and environmental risk factors (breed, age, sex, source of animal, body condition scores of animals, respiratory system status) associated with sero-positivity in animals. The study revealed an apparent seroprevalence of 2.57% (25/971 cattle; 95% CI:1.58-3.57), with an estimated true seroprevalence of 0.91% (95% CI: 0.0-2.81). However, none of the variables were found to be significantly associated with bTB seroprevalence in cattle. We recommend, further sampling and employment of confirmatory testing to fully ascertain the extent of bTB in the cattle herds in eastern Bhutan for prevention and control.

Dog ecology and rabies knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) in the Northern Communal Areas of Namibia.

In 2021, a comprehensive dog demographic questionnaire combined with a KAP survey were conducted in the northern communal areas (NCAs) of Namibia with the aim of gaining a better understanding of dog populations, owner behaviour, and knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) relating to rabies. The survey of 3,726 households across the eight regions of the NCAs provided insights that will inform interventions in order to improve human rabies prevention and Namibia's dog rabies control strategy. The results showed a relatively low average human/dog ratio (HDR) of 5.4:1 indicating a surprisingly high dog population of at least 272,000 dogs in the NCAs, 93% of which appear to be owned but are free-roaming. Data analysis revealed opportunities but also highlighted needs for improvements in rabies surveillance and mass dog vaccinations. Although knowledge, attitude, and practice scores towards epidemiologic and clinical aspects, human rabies prevention, and dog rabies vaccination were deemed to be acceptable, the survey nevertheless revealed deficiencies in certain aspects in some of the population. Interestingly, data seemed to indicate relatively high dog bite incidences per 100,000 people, ranging between 262 and 1,369 and a certain number of unreported human rabies cases. Despite the very high number of dogs, only 50% of dog-owning households reported having vaccinated their dogs. In order to address these issues, the planning, announcement, and implementation of mass dog vaccination campaigns needs to be adapted to achieve adequate vaccination coverage. Another focus needs to be on rabies awareness and education if Namibia is to be significantly contributing to the global goal of "Zero by 30".

From Field Tests to Molecular Tools-Evaluating Diagnostic Tests to Improve Rabies Surveillance in Namibia.

Rabies is endemic in Namibia and is present both in wildlife carnivores and domestic free-roaming dogs. The disease thus represents a challenge for public human and veterinary disease control. Namibia has implemented a national strategic plan to control rabies and the country's activities are supported by international organizations. To this end, rabies diagnosis at the Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL) was improved in the frame of a World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) laboratory twinning program: from practical sampling techniques and the use of lateral flow devices to a novel universal and discriminatory quantitative real-time Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), which easily identify dog-associated rabies viruses. The procedures applied and the results can be used as a template to improve rabies laboratory diagnosis.

An exploratory study on the perceptions of rabies and ill-health causations and health seeking behaviours of school children and local communities in southern Bhutan.

BACKGROUND: The perception of illness and health-seeking behaviours, including rabies differ from one culture to another. Depending on the cultural setting of the society in which people live, the definition of the causal factors of illness may range from natural biological causes to supernational causes which greatly influence subsequent health-seeking behaviour. To ensure best health practices and plan effective health interventions for the control of dog-mediated-human rabies, we explored how school children and adult communities perceive and respond to illnesses, including rabies in southern Bhutan. METHODS: We collected quantitative data related to the causes of illness and health-seeking practices of school children using a questionnaire survey (QS). Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews (IDIs) with older members of communities (≥ 18 years) that work closely with school children. Descriptive analysis was performed for the quantitative data and thematic analysis was performed for the qualitative data. RESULTS: The participants during the FDGsand IDIshave linked the illnesses to past actions, spirits, energy channels, planetary movement, sorcery, black magic, food, physical or environmental factors, individual habits and social factors. The survey of the school children reported microorganisms (75%), past actions (16.8%), spirits (9.6%) and black magic (9.1%) as causal factors for illnesses. Health seeking behaviours reported by the participants included visiting hospitals, performing spiritual or religious rituals and local treatments. Similarly, school children also mentioned that illnesses can be treated by visiting hospitals (98%), performing rituals (59.1%), and seeking traditional treatments practices (18.8%). Both school children and adult members of the communities that we interviewed were well aware on the causes of rabies and need for allopathic treatments rather than seeking spiritual or local treatments. CONCLUSION: There is a need for the consideration of the socio-cultural context in the planning and implementation of health-related policies, including the rabies prevention programs in Bhutan, by involving traditional healers and religious entities with "One Health" public health sectors.

Assessment of the rabies education among middle secondary school students of southeastern Bhutan.

Rabies is one of the most important zoonotic diseases that mostly affect children. We conducted a rabies education among 129 secondary school children (intervention group = 94 students, control group = 35 students) in two schools in southeast Bhutan and evaluated the effectiveness of the lesson by comparing the knowledge, perception and safety behaviour score about rabies before and after education. We also assessed the knowledge retention capacity of the students at three months post intervention. Our findings indicated that short rabies lesson significantly (P<0.001) improved the mean knowledge score from 19.98(±2.72) to 26.96(±2.24) in the intervention group. Similarly, mean scores for perception and safety behaviour improved significantly (P<0.001) from 10.77 (±1.89) to 13.95 (±1.36) and 9.809 (±1.85) to 12.97 (±1.54), respectively. Although the scores have reduced significantly (P<0.001) at three months post intervention, most of the rabies information was largely retained by the students. In control group, significant increase in mean scores were also observed for perception from 10.17 (±2.38) to 11.2 (±2.44) and safety behaviour from 9.14(±1.44) to 10.74 (±1.95) after 3 months of education. The finding demonstrate that a short rabies lesson is effective in improving knowledge, perceptions and understanding of dog bites safety behaviour among the school children. However, there is a need for a frequent awareness program, at least quarterly or half yearly. Rabies education should focus on critical points such as dog bites being the main source of rabies and the importance washing a dog/animal bite wound with soap and water, and visiting the hospital for medical advice following animal bites.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice on antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance among the veterinarians and para-veterinarians in Bhutan.

INTRODUCTION: Antimicrobial resistance is (AMR) an emerging global public health problem. Rationale use of antibiotic can prevent the rise of antimicrobial resistance. The objective of this study was to understand the knowledge, attitude and practice on antibiotic usage and AMR among the veterinarians and para-veterinarians in Bhutan. METHOD: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey among the veterinarians and para-veterinarians was conducted from June to July 2020. A score of one to the correct answers and zero for the wrong answers was allotted to each respondent answers. The total score was added and those who scored above the mean was categorized as having good knowledge and favourable attitude. RESULT: A total of 219 animal health workers participated in this study. The mean knowledge score was 12.05 ±1.74 with 38.8% of the respondents having good knowledge on antibiotic use and AMR. Similarly, the mean scores for the attitude level were 8.32±1.61 with 51% them having favorable attitude towards antibiotic usage and AMR. The mean practice score was 3.83±1.06 with 77% of them having good practices on antibiotic use. The respondents who read national plan on AMR were found to have good knowledge on antibiotics and AMR (AOR: 2.39; 95% CI: 1.19-4.82). The female respondents (AOR: 2.16; 95% CI: 1.01-4.61), respondents from the eastern region (AOR: 2.53; 95% CI: 1.18-5.44), west central (AOR: 3; 95% CI: 1.30-6.92), animal health supervisors (AOR: 9.77; 95% CI: 1.98-48.29), and livestock production supervisors (AOR: 2.77; 95% CI: 1.21-6.35) have favorable attitude towards antibiotics and AMR. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identified that most animal health workers in Bhutan had poor knowledge on antibiotics usage and AMR. Therefore, regular awareness education on antibiotics and AMR in the form of refresher course/training must be provided to the animal health workers in the country to avoid inappropriate use of antibiotics.

Knowledge and Perception of Rabies among School Children in Rabies Endemic Areas of South Bhutan.

Rabies is endemic in southern Bhutan and children are the frequent victims of dog bites. We surveyed the knowledge, attitude, and practices on rabies among school children in three schools located in southern Bhutan. A total of 701 students (57.9% female, 42.1% male) with an age range of 12-21 years (mean: 15 years) participated in the survey, of which 98.2% had heard about rabies. Most of the students demonstrated a good level of knowledge (59.7%) and a favorable perception towards rabies (57.7%). Multivariable logistic analysis revealed the relation between knowledge and the awareness campaign (OR:1.5, 95% CI: 1.1-2.1). Similarly, higher grades of students (OR:1.9, 95%CI: 1.3-2.9) and employed mothers of the students (OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.0-2.7) were associated with more favorable perceptions. However, some knowledge gaps were identified in this study, such as students not being able to clearly mention the susceptible hosts of rabies, transmission routes, clinical signs, and prevention and control options. Therefore, regular awareness programs on rabies are necessary among school children in Bhutan.

Occurrence of Echinococcusgranulosussensulato and Other Taeniids in Bhutan.

The present research shows the results of a national study documenting the occurrence and genetic diversity of Echinococcus and Taenia species across Bhutan. Environmental dog faecal samples (n = 953) were collected from 2016 to 2018 in all 20 Bhutanese districts, mainly in urbanised areas. Cystic echinococcosis cysts were isolated from 13 humans and one mithun (Bos frontalis). Isolation of taeniid eggs from faeces was performed by sieving/flotation technique, followed by DNA isolation, PCR and sequence analyses for species identification (gene target: small subunit of ribosomal RNA). Genetic diversity of E. granulosuss.s. was based on the sequence (1609 bp) of the cox1 gene. A total of 67 out of 953 (7%) dog faecal samples were positive for at least one taeniid species. From the 670 free-roaming dog faecal samples, 40 (5.9%) were positive for taeniid DNA, 22 (3.2%) of them were identified as E. granulosuss.s. and four (0.5%) as E. ortleppi (G5). From the 283 faecal samples originating from yak-grazing areas, 27 (9.5%) were taeniid positive, including eight (2.8%) infected with E. granulosuss.s. and four (1.4%) with E. ortleppi. E. granulosuss.s. was identified in all isolates from human and the cyst from mithun. A haplotype network (cox1 gene) from E. granulosuss.s, including isolates from 12 dogs, two human and one mithun, revealed eight different haplotypes. The most common cox1 haplotype was the globally distributed Eg01, followed by Eg40 and Eg37 (previously described in China). Five new cox1 haplotypes (EgBhu1-5) originated from human, dogs, and a mithun were identified. The study indicated the contamination of urban areas and pastures with Echinococcus eggs in seven districts in Bhutan. The molecular characterisation of E. granulosuss.l. revealed different E. granulosuss.s. haplotypes as well as E. ortleppi. The transmission of T. multiceps was documented only in the western part of the country. Considering the zoonotic feature of E. granulosus s.s. and E. ortleppi and the economic impact of coenurosis caused by T. multiceps (also known as gid) in Bhutan, the findings of this study represent a significant contribution towards an epidemiological baseline for the establishment of a national control programme.

Identification, Distribution, and Habitat Suitability Models of Ixodid Tick Species in Cattle in Eastern Bhutan.

Tick infestation is the most reported parasitological problem in cattle in Bhutan. In May and June 2019, we collected ticks from 240 cattle in two districts of Eastern Bhutan. Tick presence, diversity, and infestation prevalence were examined by morphological identification of 3600 live adult ticks. The relationships between cattle, geographic factors, and infestation prevalence were assessed using logistic regression analyses. Habitat suitability for the tick species identified was determined using MaxEnt. Four genera and six species of ticks were found. These were Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini) (70.2% (95% confidence interval (CI): 68.7-71.7)), Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides Supino (18.8% (95% CI: 17.5-20.1)), Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann (8.2% (95% CI: 7.3-9.1)), Haemaphysalis spinigera Neumann (2.5% (95% CI: 2-3)), Amblyomma testudinarium Koch (0.19% (95% CI: 0.07-0.4)), and a single unidentified Ixodes sp. Logistic regression indicated that the variables associated with infestation were: longitude and cattle age for R. microplus; latitude for R. haemaphysaloides; and altitude and cattle breed for H. bispinosa and H. spinigera. MaxEnt models showed land cover to be an important predictor for the occurrence of all tick species examined. These findings provide information that can be used to initiate and plan enhanced tick surveillance and subsequent prevention and control programs for ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle in Bhutan.

A knowledge, attitudes, and practices study on ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle among farmers in a selected area of eastern Bhutan.

Livestock farming plays an important role in supporting the livelihood of resource-poor subsistence farmers in Bhutan. However, ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are one of the major constraints to livestock farming due to their negative effect on health and production. To date, no study has been conducted in Bhutan to assess farmers' knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) about ticks and TBDs in cattle, although such information is essential in ensuring the development and adoption of effective prevention and control measures. Therefore, a KAP survey was conducted among 246 cattle owners in the Samkhar sub-district of eastern Bhutan in June 2019, using a structured questionnaire. Based on our scoring criteria, 52% [95%CI: 45.5-58.4] had adequate knowledge about ticks as potential vectors of diseases. Logistic regression analysis showed that the individuals who practiced a stall-feeding system of cattle rearing were 2.8 times [OR = 2.8 (95%CI: 1.66-4.78)] more likely to have adequate knowledge than others. Sixty-eight percent [95%CI: 62.5-74.4] had a favorable attitude toward tick prevention and control programs. Men were 1.95 times [OR = 1.95 (95%CI: 1.09-3.55)] more likely to have a favorable attitude than women, and the individuals who practiced a stall-feeding system were 2.59 times [OR = 2.59 95%CI: 1.45-4.78)] more likely to have a favorable attitude than others, after adjusting for the effect of other variables in the model. Overall, only 38% [95%CI 32.5-45] of the respondents reported tick infestation as one of the most important animal health problems, but 100% reported using acaricides to control ticks in cattle. Despite a high level of acaricide usage, the level of knowledge was low among the farmers interviewed. Findings from this study underline the importance of considering identified knowledge gaps and initiating education efforts to improve the adoption of effective tick prevention and control measures among farmers.

Application of the GARC Data Logger-a custom-developed data collection device-to capture and monitor mass dog vaccination campaigns in Namibia.

Domestic dogs are responsible for 99% of all cases of human rabies and thus, mass dog vaccination has been demonstrated to be the most effective approach towards the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies. Namibia demonstrated the feasibility of this approach by applying government-led strategic rabies vaccination campaigns to reduce both human and dog rabies incidences in the Northern Communal Areas of Namibia since 2016. The lessons learnt using paper-based form for data capturing and management of mass dog vaccination campaign during the pilot and roll out phase of the project (2016-2018) led to the implementation of a simple and accurate data collection tool in the second phase (2019-2022) of the rabies elimination program. In this paper, we describe the implementation of such custom-developed vaccination tracking device, i.e. the Global Alliance for Rabies Control (GARC) Data Logger (GDL), and the integration of the collected data into a website-based rabies surveillance system (Rabies Epidemiological Bulletin-REB) during 2019 and 2020 campaigns. A total of 10,037 dogs and 520 cats were vaccinated during the 2019 campaign and 13,219 dogs and 1,044 cats during the 2020 campaign. The vaccination data were recorded with the GDL and visualized via REB. Subsequent GIS-analysis using gridded population data revealed a suboptimal vaccination coverage in the great majority of grid cells (82%) with a vaccination coverage below 50%. Spatial regression analysis identified the number of schools, estimated human density, and adult dog population were associated with the vaccination performance. However, there was an inverse correlation to human densities. Nonetheless, the use of the GDL improved data capturing and monitoring capacity of the campaign, enabling the Namibian government to improve strategies for the vaccination of at-risk areas towards achieving adequate vaccination coverage which would effectively break the transmission of rabies.

A Qualitative Risk Assessment of Rabies Reintroduction Into the Rabies Low-Risk Zone of Bhutan.

In Bhutan, dog-mediated rabies has been successfully eliminated from most regions of the country but remains endemic in the Southern region and sporadic incursions are also reported in the East. Elimination of rabies from the southern part of Bhutan is challenged by the porous border with the neighboring states of India which facilitates free and unregulated movement of animals. Around 17 outbreaks of rabies are reported annually in dogs and other domestic animals, posing continuous public health risks and economic losses. Furthermore, due to anthropogenic factors, such as increasing human settlements along highways, increased animal transportation, and the complex and changing human-pet relationship, there is potential to reintroduce rabies from rabies high-risk zone to rabies low-risk zone. This study was undertaken to estimate the risk of rabies re-introduction to the rabies low-risk zone by performing a qualitative risk assessment. The assessment was conducted for three risk pathways (stray dog-pathway, pet dog-pathway and cattle-pathway) under two scenarios: (1) no risk mitigation measures in place and (2) current risk mitigation measures in place. The current control measures include Government led programs, such as mass dog vaccination and dog population management, regulation of the movment of animals through pre-travel check-up and health certification, regular awareness education and rabies surveillance in the rabies endemic areas. The probability of an event occurring was assigned using the data from the available literature. Where gaps in knowledge existed, expert opinion, elicited through modified Delphi method, was used. Under the scenario in which no risk mitigation measures were in place, the risk of rabies re-introduction was estimated to be medium for the stray-dog pathway with a low level of uncertainty, low for pet-dog pathway with a low level of uncertainty, and very low for the cattle-pathway with a medium level of uncertainty. When current risk-mitigation measures were included, the risk of rabies reintroduction was estimated to be very low for the stray-dog pathway with a medium level of uncertainty, low for the pet dog-pathway with a low level of uncertainty, and extremely low for the cattle-pathway with a medium level of uncertainty. The risk of rabies re-introduction through all the pathways was greater than negligible. These findings highlight the importance of maintaining and enhancing current risk mitigation measures to prevent re-introduction of rabies into rabies low-risk zone.

Evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic test kit to the gold standard fluorescent antibody test for diagnosis of rabies in animals in Bhutan.

BACKGROUND: Rabies kills approximately 59,000 people each year worldwide. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of rabies is important for instituting rapid containment measures and for advising the exposed people for postexposure treatment. The application of a rapid diagnostic tests in the field can greatly enhance disease surveillance and diagnostic activities, especially in resource poor settings. In this study, a total of 179 brain tissue samples collected from different rabies suspect animal species (113 dogs, 50 cattle, 10 cats, 3 goats, 2 horses, and 1 bear) were selected and tested using both rapid immunochromatographic kit and the reference standard fluorescent antibody test (FAT). We evaluated the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of a rapid antigen detection test kit produced by BioNote, Inc. (Hwaseong-si, Korea) relative to a FAT for its fit-for-purpose for confirmation of clinical cases of rabies for early response and enhancing rabies surveillance. RESULTS: Among 179 samples examined in this study, there was a concordance in results by the rapid test and FAT in 115 positive samples and 54 negative samples. Test results were discordant in 10 samples which were positive by FAT, but negative (false negative) by rapid kit. The rapid test kit showed a sensitivity of 92% (95% CI: 85.9-95.6) and specificity of 100% (95% CI: 93.4-100) using FAT as the reference standard. The positive and negative predictive values were found to be 100% (95% CI:96.7-100) and 84.4% (95% CI: 73.6-91.3), respectively. Overall, there was 94.4% (95% CI: 90-96.9) test agreement between rapid test and FAT (Kappa value = 0.874) with a positive percent agreement and negative percent agreement of 92 and 100%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our finding demonstrated that the rapid test kit (BioNote) can be used for rabies surveillance and confirming clinical case of rabies in animals for making rapid decisions particularly controlling rabies outbreaks in resource poor settings.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of canine distemper virus in the pet and stray dogs in Haa, western Bhutan.

BACKGROUND: Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) is a highly contagious virus belonging to family Paramyxovirade, genus Morbillivirus and responsible for high morbidity and mortality in dogs worldwide. Infected domestic dogs can cause spillover infections to wild carnivores that are in contact. We conducted a seroprevalence survey of CDV in domestic dogs in two areas of western Bhutan (Haa district) located at the periphery of the Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve, which is home to several endangered wildlife. A total of 238 serum samples, 119 each from the pet and stray dog, were collected during summer and winter seasons. Samples were tested for CDV antibodies using a sandwich enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA) test. RESULTS: The seroprevalence of CDV was found to be 11.3% (95% CI 6.7-14.2). Dogs sampled during winter were less likely to test seropositive against CDV antibodies than those sampled during summer (adjusted odds ratio: -2.6; 95% CI: - 1.2-6.1). Dogs in good body condition were found to be more likely to test seropositive against CDV than dogs in poor condition and obese dogs (adjusted odds ratio: 2.2; 95% CI: 0.1-5.9). There were no significant differences in the seroprevalence of CDV among different sexes, breeds and age classes, pet and stray dogs and between the two study sites. CONCLUSIONS: Our study indicates that CDV seroprevalence was equally distributed among pet and stray dogs. We suggest strengthening the management practices of dogs through responsible dog ownership, dog population management and waste management to minimize the transmission risk of infectious diseases to wildlife.

Fighting Dog-Mediated Rabies in Namibia-Implementation of a Rabies Elimination Program in the Northern Communal Areas.

The major part of the global burden of dog-mediated rabies falls on Africa and Asia, where still an estimated 60,000 people die of the disease annually. Like in many African countries, dog-mediated rabies is a major public health concern in Namibia, costing the country an estimated 242 human deaths during the past two decades, in particular in the Northern Communal Areas (NCAs). Consequently, under the "One Health" concept, the Namibian government adopted a National Rabies Control Strategy in 2015, which strives to contribute to the global goal of ending dog-mediated human rabies deaths by 2030. A key component of this strategy was the implementation a dog rabies elimination program in the NCAs in 2016, being designed as a stepwise regional rollout strategy by building on experience gained in a pilot project area. The area of implementation covers approximately 263,376 km2 and 64 constituencies, with around 1.2 million inhabitants and estimated 93,000 dogs.

A community-based knowledge, attitude, and practice survey on rabies among cattle owners in selected areas of Bhutan.

Rabies remains a disease of significant zoonotic and economic concern in rabies endemic areas of Bhutan. Rabies outbreaks in livestock threaten the livelihoods of subsistence farming communities and pose a potential public health threat. As a part of identifying approaches to prevent rabies in cattle, a Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) survey was conducted among cattle owners in selected rural areas of the southern rabies high-risk zone and low-risk zone in eastern Bhutan. Between March and April 2017, 562 cattle owners (281 in the east and 281 in the south) were interviewed using a questionnaire. Eighty-eight percent of the participants had heard of rabies but only 39% of the participants who had heard of rabies had adequate knowledge about rabies. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that residing in the south [OR = 9.25 (95% CI: 6.01-14.53)] and having seen a rabies case [OR = 2.46 (95% CI: 1.6-3.82)] were significantly associated with having adequate knowledge about rabies. Based on our scoring criteria, 65% of the total participants who had heard of rabies had a favorable attitude towards rabies control and prevention programs. The participants residing in the east were two times more likely to have a favourable attitude than their counterparts in the south [OR = 2.08 (95% CI: 1.43-3.05)]. More than 70% of the participants reported engaging in farm activities such as examining the oral cavity of sick cattle and assisting cattle during parturition. Only 25% of the participants reported using personal protective equipment while undertaking these activities. Despite a high level of rabies awareness, we observed that there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge about rabies regarding susceptible hosts, transmission routes, the health outcome of rabies infection in humans, and appropriate health-seeking behaviours. This study highlights the need to strengthen rabies education programs in rural communities to address the knowledge gaps that have been identified.

Determinants of health seeking behavior of animal bite victims in rabies endemic South Bhutan: a community-based contact-tracing survey.

BACKGROUND: Dog bites are the main source of rabies infection and death in humans, contributing up to 99% of all cases. We conducted a contact-tracing study to evaluate the health seeking and treatment compliance behaviors of people following potential exposure to rabies in rabies endemic south Bhutan. METHODS: Using information from the rabies post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) register, animal-exposed victims who had visited five hospitals in south Bhutan between January and March 2017 were traced and further data were collected from them using a structured questionnaire. A snowballing technique was used to identify victims who did not seek PEP.The survey was conducted between April and June 2017. Logistic regression was performed to assess factors associated with PEP-seeking and compliance behavior by the victims. RESULTS: Amongst 630 who reported to hospitals, 70% (444) of people could be traced and additional 8% (39) who did not seek PEP was identified through contact tracing. Therefore, a total of 483 people were interviewed. Seventy one percent (344/483) of exposure were due to animal bites of which 80% (365/455) were considered to be provoked incidents. Common reasons for not seeking health care included assumptions that risks of infection were minor if bitten by an owned or vaccinated dog. The victims who are male (OR: 0.36; 95% CI: 0.16-0.77) and educated (OR: 0.41; 95% CI: 0.17-0.96) were less likely to seek PEP, while those that experienced unprovoked bite (OR: 5.10; 95% CI: 1.20-21.77) were more likely to seek PEP in the hospitals. Overall, 82% of the victims sought PEP from the hospitals within 24 h after exposure. Eighty three percent completed the PEP course prescribed by the physician. The respondents living in urban areas (OR: 2.67; 95% CI: 1.34-5.30) were more likely to complete the prescribed PEP course than rural dwellers. CONCLUSIONS: There is high risk of rabies infection in southern Bhutan. It is critical to bridge knowledge gaps and dispel existing myths which will help to improve PEP seeking and compliance behavior of people exposed to rabies infection from animals. A risk-based advocacy program is necessary to prevent dog-mediated human rabies deaths.

Serological Evidence of Rickettsia, Orientia, and Coxiella in Domestic Animals from Bhutan: Preliminary Findings.

There is no information on rickettsial diseases in domestic animals in Bhutan. This study provides preliminary serological data on exposure of domestic animals to Rickettsia, Orientia, and Coxiella. Animal sera were collected opportunistically from Bhutan and tested in the Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory for IgG antibodies against spotted fever group (SFG) and typhus group (TG) Rickettsia, scrub typhus group (STG), and Q fever (QF). Of the 294 animals tested, 136 (46%) showed serological evidence of past exposure to one or more rickettsiae: 106 (36%), 62 (21%), 45 (15%), and 11 (4%) being positive against SFG Rickettsia, Orientia, TG Rickettsia, and Coxiella, respectively. Dogs appeared to exhibit the highest seropositivity against SFG (55%) and TG Rickettsia (45%), horses against STG (91%), while goats were mostly positive for Coxiella (9%). Dogs also appeared to have high risk of being exposed to SFG Rickettsia (odd ratios [OR] 5.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.02-10.80, p < 0.001), TG Rickettsia (OR 48.74, 95% CI 11.29-210.32, p < 0.001), and STG (OR 6.80, 95% CI 3.32-13.95, p < 0.001), but not against QF (OR 1.95, 95% CI 0.42-8.95, p = 0.390). Differences in seropositivity rates between animal species may have been significant for SFG, TG, and STG, but not for QF. The differences in the seropositivity rates of the four infections between districts appeared to be significant for TG and STG, but not for SFG and QF. The seropositivity rates of domestic animals to the four rickettsial infections were consistent with similar studies on the human population in the same areas and appear to demonstrate a high prevalence of exposure to rickettsiae in Bhutan. These preliminary findings constitute baseline data for Bhutan. The findings of this study call for an increased human-livestock sector collaboration in rickettsial diseases research aimed at developing diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines and formulating preventive and control measures through a One Health approach.

Spatio-temporal epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal, 2007-2015.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major public health problem in Nepal. For the effective management and surveillance of JE, a clear understanding of its epidemiology is essential. Therefore, we conducted descriptive and spatial analyses to understand the spatio-temporal distribution of JE in human in Nepal. From 2007 to 2015, 1,823 JE cases were reported with a cumulative mean incidence of 0.735/100,000 population and a case fatality rate of 6.6%. The death rate in the up-to-24 years of age group was 74%. The JE cases were most commonly reported in the age group of 1-14 years. There is a strong seasonal pattern of JE occurrence in Nepal which peaked in August and declined by October each year, which corresponds to the monsoon season. The JE cases were reported in 63 of 75 districts (84%), expanding in the mountain and hill regions. There was a strong clustering of JE incidence in the south-western and south-eastern Terai region, which is endemic for JE. Therefore, the JE surveillance system should be improved to better understand the drivers of disease expansion in Nepal for instituting a control program.

Biosecurity survey in relation to the risk of HPAI outbreaks in backyard poultry holdings in Thimphu city area, Bhutan.

BACKGROUND: A questionnaire survey was conducted to assess the biosecurity and other practices of backyard poultry holdings and knowledge and practices of poultry keepers following an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) virus in poultry in Thimphu city area, Bhutan. RESULTS: The study identified 62 backyard poultry holdings in 12 settlement areas, and the owners were subsequently interviewed. The birds are kept in a low-input low-output system, fed locally available scavenging feed base, and supplemented with food scraps and some grain. Although the birds are housed at night in a small coop to protect them against theft and predators, they are let loose during the day to scavenge in the homestead surroundings. This invariably results in mixing with other poultry birds within the settlement and wild birds, creating favorable conditions for disease spread within and between flocks. Moreover, the poultry keepers have a low level of knowledge and awareness related to the importance of biosecurity measures, as well as veterinary care of the birds and reporting systems. Of particular concern is that sick birds within backyard holdings may not be detected rapidly, resulting in silent spread of disease and increased risk of humans contacting the virus (e.g. HPAI) from infected poultry. Nevertheless, all the respondents have indicated that they know and practice hand washing using soap and water after handling poultry and poultry products, but rarely use face-masks and hand gloves while handling poultry or cleaning poultry house. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of educating poultry keepers to improve the housing and management systems of poultry farming within the backyard holdings in the Thimphu city area in order to prevent future disease outbreaks.