Tuberculosis is Associated with Chronic Hypoxemia among Kenyan Adults (CHAKA): A Case-Control Study.

RATIONALE: Data on risk factors for chronic hypoxemia in low and middle-income countries are lacking. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to quantify the association between potential risk factors and chronic hypoxemia among adults hospitalized in Kenya. METHODS: A hospital-based case-control study was conducted at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Eldoret, Kenya. Adult inpatients were screened on admission and enrolled in a 1:2 case to control ratio. Cases were patients with chronic hypoxemia, defined as a resting oxygen saturation (SpO2) < 88% on admission and either a one-month post discharge SpO2 < 88% or, if they died prior to follow-up, a documented SpO2 < 88% in the 6 months prior to enrollment. Controls were randomly selected, stratified by sex, among non-hypoxemic inpatients. Data were collected via questionnaires and structured chart review. Regression was used to assess the association between chronic hypoxemia and age, sex, smoking status, biomass fuel use, elevation, and self-reported history of tuberculosis and HIV diagnosis. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) are reported. RESULTS: The study enrolled 108 chronically hypoxemic cases and 240 non-hypoxemic controls. In multivariable analysis, as compared to controls, chronically hypoxemic cases had significantly higher odds of older age (OR 1.2 per 5-year increase; 95% CI: 1.1-1.3), female sex (OR 3.6, 95% CI: 1.8-7.2), current or former tobacco use (OR 4.7, 95% CI: 2.3-9.6) and prior tuberculosis (OR 11.8, 95% CI: 4.7-29.6), but no increase in odds of HIV diagnosis and biomass fuel use. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the potential impact of prior tuberculosis on chronic lung disease in Kenya and the need for further studies on post-tuberculosis lung disease.

Proteomics discovery in children and young adults with HIV identifies fibrosis, inflammatory, and immune biomarkers associated with myocardial impairment.

People with HIV are at increased risk of cardiac dysfunction; however, limited tools are available to identify patients at highest risk for future cardiac disease. We performed proteomic profiling using plasma samples from children and young adults with perinatally acquired HIV without clinical cardiac disease, comparing samples from participants with and without an abnormal myocardial performance index (MPI). We identified four proteins independently associated with subclinical cardiac dysfunction: ST2, CA1, EN-RAGE, and VSIG2.

Mobile Phone-Based Confidential Social Network Referrals for HIV Testing (CONSORT): Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Critical to efforts to end the HIV epidemic is the identification of persons living with HIV who have yet to be diagnosed and engaged in care. Expanded HIV testing outreach efforts need to be both efficient and ambitious, targeting the social networks of persons living with HIV and those at above-average risk of undiagnosed HIV infection. The ubiquity of mobile phones across many high HIV prevalence settings has created opportunities to leverage mobile health (mHealth) technologies to engage social networks for HIV testing outreach, prevention, and treatment. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the acceptability and efficacy of a novel mHealth intervention, "Confidential Social Network Referrals for HIV Testing (CONSORT)," to nudge at-risk individuals to test for HIV using SMS text messages. METHODS: We will conduct the CONSORT study in Moshi, Tanzania, the commercial center and administrative capital of the Kilimanjaro Region in northern Tanzania. After qualitative formative work and pilot testing, we will enroll 400 clients presenting for HIV counseling and testing and 200 persons living with HIV and receiving care at HIV care and treatment centers as "inviters" into a randomized controlled trial. Eligible participants will be aged 18 years or older and live, work, or regularly receive care in Moshi. We will randomize inviters into 1 of 2 study arms. All inviters will be asked to complete a survey of their HIV testing and risk behaviors and to think of social network contacts who would benefit from HIV testing. They will then be asked to whom they would prefer to extend an HIV testing invitation in the form of a physical invitation card. Arm 1 participants will also be given the opportunity to extend CONSORT invitations in the form of automated confidential SMS text messages to any of their social network contacts or "invitees." Arm 2 participants will be offered physical invitation cards alone. The primary outcome will be counselor-documented uptake of HIV testing by invitees within 30 days of inviter enrollment. Secondary outcomes will include the acceptability of CONSORT among inviters, the number of new HIV diagnoses, and the HIV risk of invitees who present for testing. RESULTS: Enrollment in the randomized controlled trial is expected to start in September 2024. The findings will be disseminated to stakeholders and published in peer-reviewed journals. CONCLUSIONS: If CONSORT is acceptable and effective for increasing the uptake of HIV testing, given the minimal costs of SMS text reminders and the potential for exponential but targeted growth using chain referrals, it may shift current practices for HIV testing programs in the area. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClincalTrials.gov NCT05967208; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05967208. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/55068.

Provider attitudes towards quality improvement for myocardial infarction care in northern Tanzania.

INTRODUCTION: Myocardial Infarction (MI) is a leading cause of death worldwide. In high income countries, quality improvement strategies have played an important role in increasing uptake of evidence-based MI care and improving MI outcomes. The incidence of MI in sub-Saharan Africa is rising, but uptake of evidence-based care in northern Tanzania is low. There are currently no published quality improvement interventions from the region. The objective of this study was to determine provider attitudes towards a planned quality improvement intervention for MI care in northern Tanzania. METHODS: This study was conducted at a zonal referral hospital in northern Tanzania. A 41-question survey, informed by the Theoretical Framework for Acceptability, was developed by an interdisciplinary team from Tanzania and the United States. The survey, which explored provider attitudes towards MI care improvement, was administered to key provider stakeholders (physicians, nurses, and hospital administrators) using convenience sampling. RESULTS: A total of 140 providers were enrolled, including 82 (58.6%) nurses, 56 (40.0%) physicians, and 2 (1.4%) hospital administrators. Most participants worked in the Emergency Department or inpatient medical ward. Providers were interested in participating in a quality improvement project to improve MI care at their facility, with 139 (99.3%) strongly agreeing or agreeing with this statement. All participants agreed or strongly agreed that improvements were needed to MI care pathways at their facility. Though their facility has an MI care protocol, only 88 (62.9%) providers were aware of it. When asked which intervention would be the single-most effective strategy to improve MI care, the two most common responses were provider training (n = 66, 47.1%) and patient education (n = 41, 29.3%). CONCLUSION: Providers in northern Tanzania reported strongly positive attitudes towards quality improvement interventions for MI care. Locally-tailored interventions to improve MI should include provider training and patient education strategies.

Improving acute myocardial infarction care in northern Tanzania: barrier identification and implementation strategy mapping.

BACKGROUND: Evidence-based care for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) reduces morbidity and mortality. Prior studies in Tanzania identified substantial gaps in the uptake of evidence-based AMI care. Implementation science has been used to improve uptake of evidence-based AMI care in high-income settings, but interventions to improve quality of AMI care have not been studied in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants from key stakeholder groups (patients, providers, and healthcare administrators) in northern Tanzania. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted using a guide informed by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR). Interview transcripts were coded to identify barriers to AMI care, using the 39 CFIR constructs. Barriers relevant to emergency department (ED) AMI care were retained, and the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) tool was used to match barriers with Level 1 recommendations for targeted implementation strategies. RESULTS: Thirty key stakeholders, including 10 patients, 10 providers, and 10 healthcare administrators were enrolled. Thematic analysis identified 11 barriers to ED-based AMI care: complexity of AMI care, cost of high-quality AMI care, local hospital culture, insufficient diagnostic and therapeutic resources, inadequate provider training, limited patient knowledge of AMI, need for formal implementation leaders, need for dedicated champions, failure to provide high-quality care, poor provider-patient communication, and inefficient ED systems. Seven of these barriers had 5 strong ERIC recommendations: access new funding, identify and prepare champions, conduct educational meetings, develop educational materials, and distribute educational materials. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple barriers across several domains limit the uptake of evidence-based AMI care in northern Tanzania. The CFIR-ERIC mapping approach identified several targeted implementation strategies for addressing these barriers. A multi-component intervention is planned to improve uptake of evidence-based AMI care in Tanzania.

Adapting an Intervention to Improve Acute Myocardial Infarction Care in Tanzania: Co-Design of the MIMIC Intervention.

Background: Uptake of evidence-based care for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is suboptimal in Tanzania, but there are currently no published interventions to improve AMI care in sub-Saharan Africa. Objectives: Co-design a quality improvement intervention for AMI care tailored to local contextual factors. Methods: An interdisciplinary design team consisting of 20 physicians, nurses, implementation scientists, and administrators met from June 2022 through August 2023. Half of the design team consisted of representatives from the target audience, emergency department physicians and nurses at a referral hospital in northern Tanzania. The design team reviewed multiple published quality improvement interventions focusing on ED-based AMI care. After selecting a multicomponent intervention to improve AMI care in Brazil (BRIDGE-ACS), the design team used the ADAPT-ITT framework to adapt the intervention to the local context. Findings: The design team audited current AMI care processes at the study hospital and reviewed qualitative data regarding barriers to care. Multiple adaptations were made to the original BRIDGE-ACS intervention to suit the local context, including re-designing the physician reminder system and adding patient educational materials. Additional feedback was sought from topical experts, including patients with AMI. Draft intervention materials were iteratively refined in response to feedback from experts and the design team. The finalized intervention, Multicomponent Intervention to Improve Myocardial Infarction Care in Tanzania (MIMIC), consisted of five core components: physician reminders, pocket cards, champions, provider training, and patient education. Conclusion: MIMIC is the first locally tailored intervention to improve AMI care in sub-Saharan Africa. Future studies will evaluate implementation outcomes and efficacy.

Diffuse myocardial fibrosis is uncommon in people with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading cause of death in people living with HIV. Myocardial fibrosis is well-described in HIV infection acquired in adulthood. We evaluate the burden of fibrosis by cardiac magnetic resonance in people with perinatal HIV infection. METHODS: Individuals with perinatally acquired HIV (pnHIV) diagnosed before 10 years-old and on antiretroviral treatment for ≥ 6 months were matched with uninfected controls. Patients with significant cardiometabolic co-morbidities and pregnancy were excluded. Diffuse fibrosis was assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) with native T1 mapping for calculation of extracellular volume fraction (ECV). Viability was assessed with late gadolinium enhancement. The normality of fibrosis was assessed using the Komogrov-Smirnov test. Fibrosis between the groups was analyzed using a Mann-Whitney U test, as the data was not normally distributed. Statistical significance was defined as a p-valve < 0.05. RESULTS: Fourteen adults with pnHIV group and 26 controls (71% female and 86% Black race) were assessed. The average (± standard deviation) age in the study group was 29 (± 4.3) years-old. All pnHIV had been on ART for decades. Demographic data, CMR functional/volumetric data, and pre-contrast T1 mapping values were similar between groups. Diastolic function was normal in 50% of pnHIV patients and indeterminate in most of the remainder (42%). There was no statistically significant difference in ECV between groups; p = 0.24. CONCLUSION: Perinatally-acquired HIV was not associated with diffuse myocardial fibrosis. Larger prospective studies with serial examinations are needed to determine whether pnHIV patients develop abnormal structure or function more often than unaffected controls.

Predictors of prior HIV testing and acceptance of a community-based HIV test offer among male bar patrons in northern Tanzania.

Community-based HIV testing offers an alternative approach to encourage HIV testing among men in sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, we evaluated a community-based HIV testing strategy targeting male bar patrons in northern Tanzania to assess factors predictive of prior HIV testing and factors predictive of accepting a real-time HIV test offer. Participants completed a detailed survey and were offered HIV testing upon survey completion. Poisson regression was used to identify prevalence ratios for the association between potential predictors and prior HIV testing or real-time testing uptake. Of 359 participants analyzed, the median age was 41 (range 19-82) years, 257 (71.6%) reported a previous HIV test, and 321 (89.4%) accepted the real-time testing offer. Factors associated with previous testing for HIV (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR], 95% CI) were wealth scores in the upper-middle quartile (1.25, 1.03-1.52) or upper quartile (1.35, 1.12-1.62) and HIV knowledge (1.04, 1.01-1.07). Factors that predicted real-time testing uptake were lower scores on the Gender-Equitable Men scale (0.99, 0.98-0.99), never testing for HIV (1.16, 1.03-1.31), and testing for HIV > 12 months prior (1.18, 1.06-1.31). We show that individual-level factors that influence the testing-seeking behaviors of men are not likely to impact their acceptance of an HIV offer.

Leveraging Community Health Workers and a Responsive Digital Health System to Improve Vaccination Coverage and Timeliness in Resource-Limited Settings: Protocol for a Cluster Randomized Type 1 Effectiveness-Implementation Hybrid Study.

BACKGROUND: Tanzania is 1 of 20 countries where the majority of unvaccinated and undervaccinated children reside. Prior research identified substantial rural-urban disparities in the coverage and timeliness of childhood vaccinations in Tanzania, with children in rural settings being more likely to receive delayed or no vaccinations. Further research is necessary to identify effective and scalable interventions that can bridge rural-urban gaps in childhood vaccination while accounting for multifaceted barriers to vaccination. OBJECTIVE: This protocol describes a type 1 effectiveness-implementation hybrid study to evaluate Chanjo Kwa Wakati (timely vaccination in Kiswahili), a community-based digital health intervention to improve vaccination timeliness. The intervention combines human resources (community health workers), low-cost digital strategies (electronic communication, digital case management, and task automation), a vaccination knowledge intervention, and insights from behavioral economics (reminders and incentives) to promote timely childhood vaccinations. METHODS: The study will be conducted in 2 predominantly rural regions in Tanzania with large numbers of unvaccinated or undervaccinated children: Shinyanga and Mwanza. Forty rural health facilities and their catchment areas (clusters) will be randomized to an early or delayed onset study arm. From each cluster, 3 cohorts of mother-child dyads (1 retrospective cohort and 2 prospective cohorts) will be enrolled in the study. The timeliness and coverage of all vaccinations recommended during the first year of life will be observed for 1200 children (n=600, 50% intervention group children and n=600, 50% nonintervention group children). The primary effectiveness outcome will be the timeliness of the third dose of the pentavalent vaccine (Penta3). Quantitative surveys, vaccination records, study logs, fidelity checklists, and qualitative interviews with mothers and key informants will inform the 5 constructs of the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. The results will be used to develop an implementation blueprint to guide future adaptations and scale-up of Chanjo Kwa Wakati. RESULTS: The study was funded in August 2022. Data collection is expected to last from February 2024 to July 2027. CONCLUSIONS: This study will address the lack of rigorous evidence on the effectiveness of community-based digital health interventions for promoting vaccination coverage and timeliness among children from sub-Saharan Africa and identify potential implementation strategies to facilitate the deployment of vaccination promotion interventions in low- and middle-income countries. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06024317; https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06024317. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/52523.

Patient and provider perspectives on barriers to myocardial infarction care among persons with human immunodeficiency virus in Tanzania: A qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: People with HIV (PLWH) have an increased risk myocardial infarction (MI), and evidence suggests that MI is under-diagnosed in Tanzania. However, little is known about barriers to MI care among PLWH in the region. METHODS: In this qualitative study grounded in phenomenology, semi-structured interviews were conducted in northern Tanzania. Purposive sampling was used to recruit a diverse group of providers who care for PLWH and patients with HIV and electrocardiographic evidence of prior MI. Emergent themes were identified via inductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: 24 physician and patient participants were interviewed. Most participants explained MI as caused by emotional shock and were unaware of the association between HIV and increased MI risk. Providers described poor provider training regarding MI, high out-of-pocket costs, and lack of diagnostic equipment and medications. Patients reported little engagement with and limited knowledge of cardiovascular care, despite high engagement with HIV care. Most provider and patient participants indicated that they would prefer to integrate cardiovascular care with routine HIV care. CONCLUSIONS: PLWH face many barriers to MI care in Tanzania. There is a need for multifaceted interventions to educate providers and patients, improve access to MI diagnosis, and increase engagement with cardiovascular care among this population.

Kidney disease characteristics, prevalence, and risk factors in León, Nicaragua: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: CKD of unknown etiology (CKDu) disproportionately affects young people in Central America who lack traditional CKD risk factors (diabetes and hypertension) and has instead been variably linked to heat stress, occupational and environmental exposures, nephrotoxic medications, and/or genetic susceptibility. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of CKD and identify risk factors for traditional CKD and CKDu in Nicaragua. METHODS: Surveys and assessment for CKD markers in urine and serum were performed in 15-59 year olds in households of the León municipality of Nicaragua. The survey included questions on demographics, health behaviors, occupation, and medical history. Participants with CKD were subdivided into traditional CKD and suspected CKDu based on history of diabetes, hypertension, or other specified conditions. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to identify factors associated with traditional CKD and suspected CKDu, compared to the non-CKD reference group. RESULTS: In 1795 study participants, CKD prevalence was 8.6%. Prevalence in males was twofold higher than females (12% vs 6%). Of those with CKD, 35% had suspected CKDu. Both traditional CKD and CKDu were associated with male sex and increasing age. Traditional CKD was associated with a family history of CKD, history of urinary tract infections, and lower socioeconomic status, while CKDu was associated with drinking well water and a lower body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: Both traditional CKD and CKDu are significant burdens in this region. Our study supports previous hypotheses of CKDu etiology and emphasizes the importance of CKD screening.

Diffuse Myocardial Fibrosis is Uncommon in People with Perinatally Acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading cause of death in people living with HIV. Myocardial fibrosis is well-described in HIV infection acquired in adulthood. We evaluate the burden of fibrosis by cardiac magnetic resonance in people with perinatal HIV infection. Methods: Individuals with perinatally acquired HIV (pnHIV) diagnosed before 10 years-old and on antiretroviral treatment for ≥ 6 months were matched with uninfected controls. Patients with significant cardiometabolic co-morbidities and pregnancy were excluded. Diffuse fibrosis was assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR). with native T1 mapping for calculation of extracellular volume fraction (ECV). Viability was assessed with late gadolinium enhancement. The normality of fibrosis was assessed using the Komogrov-Smirnov test. Fibrosis between the groups was analyzed using a Mann-Whitney U test, as the data was not normally distributed. Statistical significance was defined as a p-valve < 0.05. Results: Fourteen adults with pnHIV group and 26 controls (71% female and 86% Black race) were assessed. The average (± standard deviation) age in the study group was 29 (± 4.3) years-old. All pnHIV had been on ART for decades. Demographic data, CMR functional/volumetric data, and pre-contrast T1 mapping values were similar between groups. Diastolic function was normal in 50% of pnHIV patients and indeterminate in most of the remainder (42%). There was no statistically significant difference in ECV between groups; p = 0.24. Conclusion: Perinatally-acquired HIV was not associated with diffuse myocardial fibrosis. Early exposure to ART may be cardioprotective against development of myocardial fibrosis in patients with perinatal HIV.

Prevalence and phenotypic trajectories of hypoxaemia among hospitalised adults in Kenya: a single-centre, prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Global medical oxygen security is limited by knowledge gaps in hypoxaemia burden and oxygen access in low-income and middle-income countries. We examined the prevalence and phenotypic trajectories of hypoxaemia among hospitalised adults in Kenya, with a focus on chronic hypoxaemia. DESIGN: Single-centre, prospective cohort study. SETTING: National tertiary referral hospital in Eldoret, Kenya between September 2019 and April 2022. PARTICIPANTS: Adults (age ≥18 years) admitted to general medicine wards. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Our primary outcome was proportion of patients who were hypoxaemic (oxygen saturation, SpO2 ≤88%) on admission. Secondary outcomes were proportion of patients with hypoxaemia on admission who had hypoxaemia resolution, hospital discharge, transfer, or death among those with unresolved hypoxaemia or chronic hypoxaemia. Patients remaining hypoxaemic for ≤3 days after admission were enrolled into an additional cohort to determine chronic hypoxaemia. Chronic hypoxaemia was defined as an SpO2 ≤ 88% at either 1-month post-discharge follow-up or, for patients who died prior to follow-up, a documented SpO2 ≤88% during a previous hospital discharge or outpatient visit within the last 6 months. RESULTS: We screened 4104 patients (48.5% female, mean age 49.4±19.4 years), of whom 23.8% were hypoxaemic on admission. Hypoxaemic patients were significantly older and more predominantly female than normoxaemic patients. Among those hypoxaemic on admission, 33.9% had resolution of their hypoxaemia as inpatients, 55.6% had unresolved hypoxaemia (31.0% died before hospital discharge, 13.3% were alive on discharge and 11.4% were transferred) and 10.4% were lost to follow-up. The prevalence of chronic hypoxaemia was 2.1% in the total screened population, representing 8.8% of patients who were hypoxaemic on admission. Chronic hypoxaemia was determined at 1-month post-discharge among 59/86 patients and based on prior documentation among 27/86 patients. CONCLUSION: Hypoxaemia is highly prevalent among adults admitted to a general medicine ward at a national referral hospital in Kenya. Nearly 1 in 11 patients who are hypoxaemic on admission are chronically hypoxaemic.

Asthma, Airflow Obstruction, and Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation Prevalence in Western Kenya: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Objectives: Determine the prevalence of airway disease (e.g., asthma, airflow obstruction, and eosinophilic airway inflammation) in Kenya, as well as related correlates of airway disease and health-related quality of life. Methods: A three-stage, cluster-randomized cross-sectional study in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya was conducted. Individuals 12 years and older completed questionnaires (including St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire for COPD, SGRQ-C), spirometry, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) testing. Prevalence ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Multivariable models were used to assess correlates of airflow obstruction and high FeNO. Results: Three hundred ninety-two participants completed questionnaires, 369 completed FeNO testing, and 305 completed spirometry. Mean age was 37.5 years; 64% were women. The prevalence of asthma, airflow obstruction on spirometry, and eosinophilic airway inflammation was 21.7%, 12.3% and 15.7% respectively in the population. Women had significantly higher SGRQ-C scores compared to men (15.0 vs. 7.7). Wheezing or whistling in the last year and SGRQ-C scores were strongly associated with FeNO levels >50 ppb after adjusting for age, gender, BMI, and tobacco use. Conclusion: Airway disease is a significant health problem in Kenya affecting a young population who lack a significant tobacco use history.

Six-month incidence of hypertension and diabetes among adults with HIV in Tanzania: A prospective cohort study.

Data describing the incidence of hypertension and diabetes among people with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa remain sparse. In this study, adults with HIV were enrolled from a public clinic in Moshi, Tanzania (September 2020-March 2021). At enrollment, a survey was administered to collect information on comorbidities and medication use. Each participant's blood pressure and point-of-care glucose were measured. Baseline hypertension was defined by blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg or self-reported hypertension at enrollment. Baseline diabetes was defined by self-reported diabetes or hyperglycemia (fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dl or random glucose ≥200 mg/dl) at enrollment. At 6-month follow-up, participants' blood pressure and point-of-care glucose were again measured. Incident hypertension was defined by self-report of new hypertension diagnosis or blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg at follow-up in a participant without baseline hypertension. Incident diabetes was defined as self-report of new diabetes diagnosis or measured hyperglycemia at follow-up in a participant without baseline diabetes. During the study period, 477 participants were enrolled, of whom 310 did not have baseline hypertension and 457 did not have baseline diabetes. At six-month follow-up, 51 participants (95% CI: 38, 67) had new-onset hypertension, corresponding to an incidence of 33 new cases of hypertension per 100 person-years. Participants with incident hypertension at 6-month follow-up were more likely to have a history of alcohol use (90.2% vs. 73.7%, OR = 3.18, 95% CI:1.32-9.62, p = 0.008) and were older (mean age = 46.5 vs. 42.3, p = 0.027). At six-month follow-up, 8 participants (95% CI: 3, 16) had new-onset diabetes, corresponding to an incidence of 3 new cases of diabetes per 100 person-years. In conclusion, the incidence of elevated blood pressure and diabetes among Tanzanians with HIV is higher than what has been reported in high-income settings.

Six-month blood pressure and glucose control among HIV-infected adults with elevated blood pressure and hyperglycemia in northern Tanzania: A prospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: People with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly developing age-related comorbidities. The purpose of this prospective observational study was to describe 6-month outcomes among Tanzanians with HIV and elevated blood pressure or hyperglycemia under current care pathways. METHODS: Adults presenting for routine HIV care were enrolled and underwent blood pressure and blood glucose measurements. Participants with abnormal blood pressure or glucose were referred for further care, as per current guidelines. Participants' blood pressure and point-of-care glucose were re-evaluated during their 6-month follow-up visit. Elevated blood pressure was defined as systolic ≥140 mmHg or diastolic ≥90 mmHg. Hyperglycemia was defined as fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dl or random glucose ≥200 mg/dl. An electrocardiogram was obtained at enrollment and at follow-up. Interim myocardial infarction and interim myocardial ischemia were defined as new pathologic Q waves and new T-wave inversions, respectively. RESULTS: Of 500 participants, 155 had elevated blood pressure and 17 had hyperglycemia at enrolment. At 6-month follow-up, 7 (4.6%) of 155 participants with elevated blood pressure reported current use of an anti-hypertensive medication, 100 (66.2%) had persistent elevated blood pressure, 12 (7.9%) developed interim myocardial infarction, and 13 (8.6%) developed interim myocardial ischemia. Among 17 participants with hyperglycemia, 9 (56%) had persistent hyperglycemia at 6 months and 2 (12.5%) reported current use of an anti-hyperglycemic medication. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions are needed to improve non-communicable disease care pathways among Tanzanians with HIV.

How Poor Is Your Sample? A Simple Approach for Estimating the Relative Economic Status of Small and Nonrepresentative Samples.

BACKGROUND: Asset-based indices of living standards, or wealth indices, are widely used proxies for economic status; however, such indices are not readily available for small and nonrepresentative samples. METHODS: We describe a simple out-of-sample prediction approach that uses estimates from large and representative "reference" samples to calculate measures of relative economic status (e.g., wealth index scores) for small and/or nonrepresentative "target" samples. The method relies on the availability of common variables and assumptions about comparable associations between these variables and the underlying construct of interest (e.g., household wealth). We provide 2 sample applications that use Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) from 5 countries as reference samples. Using ordinary least squares regression, we estimate associations between household characteristics and the DHS wealth index. We use parameter estimates to predict wealth index scores for small nonrepresentative target samples. Comparisons of wealth distributions in the reference and target samples highlight selection effects. RESULTS: Applications of the approach to diverse populations, including populations at high risk of HIV infection and households with orphaned and separated children, demonstrate its usefulness for characterizing the economic status of small and nonrepresentative samples relative to existing reference samples. Women and men in northern Tanzania at high risk of HIV infection were concentrated in the upper half of the wealth distribution. By contrast, the relative distribution of household wealth among households with orphaned and separated children varied greatly across countries and rural versus urban settings. CONCLUSIONS: Public health professionals who implement, manage, and evaluate programs in low- and middle-income countries may find this approach applicable because of the simplicity of the estimation methods, low marginal cost of primary data acquisition, and availability of established measures of relative economic status in many publicly available household surveys (e.g., those administered by the DHS Program, World Bank, International Labour Organization, and UNICEF).