Evaluation of flunixin meglumine pour-on administration on prostaglandin E2 concentration in inflammatory exudate after induction of inflammation in cattle.

The effect of flunixin transdermal pour-on solution (Finadyne® Transdermal; MSD Animal Health) on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synthesis in bovine inflammatory exudate was evaluated in a tissue cage model of acute inflammation. Twelve calves were randomly allocated to two-treatment groups over two sequences. Three weeks prior to the first period, sterile hollow perforated polyethylene balls were surgically embedded in the subcutis at four distinct sites in each animal. On the first day of each period, an aseptic inflammation was induced by injecting 0.5mL of a 2% carrageenan solution into the lumen of each tissue cage. Treatment with either flunixin transdermal or negative control (NaCl) immediately followed. 0.5mL of exudate was collected prior to challenge, and at 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36 and 48h after challenge. Exudate PGE2 concentrations were analyzed using ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method. Mean PGE2 concentrations were consistently lower in calves treated with flunixin transdermal than those measured in calves treated with negative control, indicating an inhibitory activity on cyclooxygenase. Inhibition was the highest at 8h after treatment, and differences with the negative control were significant at +8, 24, 36 and 48h. The flunixin transdermal formulation was effective in reducing PGE2 concentrations in bovine exudate following an induced inflammation. Its anti-inflammatory action started in the first hours after treatment and lasted up to 48h.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Monitoring of Bacterial Pathogens Isolated from Urinary Tract Infections in Dogs and Cats Across Europe: ComPath Results.

ComPath is a pan-European antimicrobial surveillance program collecting bacterial pathogens from dogs and cats not recently exposed to antimicrobials. We present minimum inhibitory concentration data obtained using Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute methodology for 616 urinary tract infection (UTI) isolates collected between 2008 and 2010. In both dogs and cats, the most common pathogen was Escherichia coli (59.8% and 46.7%, respectively). Antimicrobial activity against E. coli in dogs and cats was similar with fluoroquinolone and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole susceptibility >90%. Ampicillin susceptibility was ∼80%. Staphylococcus intermedius Group isolates from dogs (67/437, 15.3%) had high antimicrobial susceptibility (>90%) toward beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Four canine isolates (6%) were oxacillin resistant, and harbored mecA. Proteus mirabilis from dogs (48/437, 11.0%) had high antimicrobial susceptibility (∼90%) to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, enrofloxacin, and marbofloxacin and slightly lower susceptibility (∼80-85%) to ampicillin and orbifloxacin. Streptococcus canis isolates (35/437, 8.0%) from dogs were all susceptible to ampicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and >90% susceptible to marbofloxacin. Although resistance was not observed, high intermediate susceptibility was seen for both enrofloxacin (28.6%) and orbifloxacin (85.7%). Overall, antimicrobial in vitro activity appears to be high in UTI pathogens from dogs and cats with low multidrug resistance, although a lack of specific dog and cat breakpoints for important antimicrobials such as cefovecin, cephalexin, and ibafloxacin prevents analysis of susceptibility for these agents.

Antimicrobial susceptibility monitoring of bacterial pathogens isolated from respiratory tract infections in dogs and cats across Europe: ComPath results.

ComPath is a pan-European resistance monitoring programme collecting bacterial pathogens from dogs and cats. We present data for respiratory tract infection (RTI) isolates collected between 2008 and 2010. Antimicrobial minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined and susceptibility calculated following Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) standards for veterinary medicine. The main pathogen from dogs was Staphylococcus intermedius Group (49/215, 22.8%) which was >90% susceptible to most antimicrobials (including oxacillin - 93.9%; 3 isolates confirmed mecA-positive) but only 59.2%, 73.5% and 87.8% susceptible to tetracycline, chloramphenicol and penicillin. Bordetella bronchiseptica (48/215, 22.3%), streptococci (36/215, 16.7%), Escherichia coli (24/215, 11.2%) and Pasteurella multocida (23/215, 10.7%) were also found in dog RTI. There are no breakpoints for Bordetella bronchiseptica. Most streptococci were penicillin- chloramphenicol-, ampicillin- and pradofloxacin-susceptible. None were enrofloxacin-resistant but 6 isolates (16.7%) were of intermediate susceptibility. The least active agent against streptococci was tetracycline (47.2% susceptible). For E. coli, 37.5% were ampicillin-susceptible but 83.3% were amoxicillin/clavulanic acid-susceptible. Only chloramphenicol showed susceptibility>90% against E. coli, with 66.7% tetracycline-susceptible and 79.2% to 87.5% susceptibility to enrofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or pradofloxacin. P. multocida were susceptible to pradofloxacin (no other breakpoints are available). The main pathogen from cats was P. multocida (82/186, 44.1%), where only pradofloxacin has breakpoints (100% susceptible). Streptococci were also collected from cats (25/186, 13.4%) and were >90% susceptible to all antimicrobials except tetracycline (36% susceptible). Most susceptibility was calculated with human-derived breakpoints and some antimicrobials had no breakpoints. Therefore predictions of clinical utility for dog and cat RTI will remain problematical unless specific breakpoints are set.

Comparative study on the in vitro and in vivo properties of two bovine herpesvirus-5 reference strains.

BACKGROUND: Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5) is an alphaherpesvirus responsible for meningoencephalitis in young cattle and it is antigenically and genetically related to bovine herpesvirus 1. BoHV-5 outbreaks are sporadic and restricted in their geographical distribution, being mostly detected in the Southern hemisphere. The N569 and A663 strains are prototypes of the "a" and "b" subtypes of BoHV-5, however, scarce information about their in vitro and in vivo properties is currently available. METHODS: For the in vitro comparison between BoHV-5 A663 and N569 strains, viral growth kinetics, lysis and infection plaque size assays were performed. Additionally, an experimental infection of cattle with BoHV-5 A663 and N569 strains was carried out. Viral excretion, development of neurological signs, presence of specific antibodies in serum and nasal swabs and presence of latent BoHV-5 DNA in trigeminal ganglion, were analyzed. Histopathological examination of samples belonging to inoculated animals was also performed. RESULTS: The lytic capacity and the cell-to-cell spread was lower for the A663 strain compared to the N569 strain, however, the production of total infectious viral particles was similar between both strains. Concerning the in vivo properties, the A663 and N569 strains are able to induce similar degrees of pathogenicity in cattle. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that the A663 strain used in this study is less adapted to in vitro replication in MDBK cells than the N569 strain and, although slight differences were observed, both strains are able to induce a similar degree of virulence in the natural host.

In vitro-generated interspecific recombinants between bovine herpesviruses 1 and 5 show attenuated replication characteristics and establish latency in the natural host.

BACKGROUND: Interspecific recombinant viruses R1ΔgC and R2ΔgI were isolated after in vitro co-infection with BoHV-1 and BoHV-5, two closely related alphaherpesviruses that infect cattle. The genetic characterization of R1ΔgC and R2ΔgI showed that they are composed of different sections of the parental genomes. The aim of this study was the characterization of the in vivo behavior of these recombinants in the natural host. RESULTS: Four groups of four 3-month-old calves of both genders were intranasally inoculated with either the recombinant or parental viruses. A control group of two animals was also included. Viral excretion and clinical signs were monitored after infection. Histopathological examination of the central nervous system (CNS) was performed and the establishment of latency in trigeminal ganglia was analyzed by PCR. The humoral response was also evaluated using ELISA tests. Three out of four animals from the BoHV-5 infected group excreted virus for 4-10 days. Two calves shed R1ΔgC virus for one day. In R2ΔgI and BoHV-1.2ΔgCΔgI groups, infectious virus was isolated only after two or three blind passages. None of the infected animals developed neurological signs, although those infected with BoHV-5 showed histopathological evidence of viral infection. Latent viral DNA was detected in at least one calf from each infected group. Serum and/or mucosal antibodies were detected in all groups. CONCLUSION: Both BoHV-1/-5 recombinants and the BoHV-1 parental strain are attenuated in calves, although they are able to replicate in animals at low rates and to establish latent infections.

Characterization of BoHV-5 field strains circulation and report of transient specific subtype of bovine herpesvirus 5 in Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5) is a member of the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae responsible for meningo-encephalitis in young cattle. The first case of bovine meningo-encephalitis associated with a herpesvirus infection was reported in Australia. The current geographical distribution of BoHV-5 infection is mainly restricted to South America, especially Brazil and Argentina. Outbreaks of BoHV-5 are regularly observed in Argentina suggesting the circulation of the virus in the bovine population. RESULTS: Seventeen field strains of BoHV-5 isolated from 1984 to now were confirmed by differential PCR and subjected to restriction endonuclease analysis (REA). Viral DNA was cleaved with BstEII which allows the differentiation among subtypes a, b and non a, non b. According to the REA with BstEII, only one field strain showed a pattern similar to the Argentinean A663 strain (prototype of BoHV-5b). All other isolates showed a clear pattern similar to the Australian N569 strain (prototype of BoHV-5a) consistent with the subtypes observed in Brazil, the other South-American country where BoHV-5 is known to be prevalent. The genomic region of subtype b responsible for the distinct pattern was determined and amplified by PCR; specifically a point mutation was identified in glycoprotein B gene, on the BstEII restriction site, which generates the profile specific of BoHV-5b. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of circulation of BoHV-5a in Argentina as the prevailing subtype. Therefore the circulation of BoHV-5b was restricted to a few years in Argentina, speculating that this subtype was not able to be maintained in the bovine population. The mutation in the gB gene is associated with the difference in the restriction patterns between subtypes "a" and "b".

Isolation of cervid herpesvirus 1 from the genital tract of a farmed red deer in Northern France.

In autumn 2008, several captive red deer in the North of France were found to be serologically positive for a ruminant alphaherpesvirus. A viral isolate obtained from the genital mucosa of a female red deer was characterised by sequencing and restriction endonuclease analyses as a cervid herpesvirus 1 closely related to Scottish Banffshire 82 strain.

IBR and BVD control: the key to successful herd management.

Control of IBR and BVD should be possible in Europe. Effective vaccines and reliable tools for monitoring are available. Systematic approach and strict implementation of control measures are essential. Voluntary or mandatory programs are ongoing on regional or national level in a lot of countries. Successful programs put pressure on surrounding regions/countries to initiate control program as well.

Biology of bovine herpesvirus 5.

Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5) is an alphaherpesvirus responsible for meningoencephalitis in young cattle and is closely antigenically and genetically related to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1). Both viruses have common aspects in their pathogenesis: (1) they infect epithelial cells at the portal of entry and (2) they establish a latent infection in the sensory nerve ganglia, i.e., the trigeminal ganglia. However, they have different neuroinvasion and neurovirulence capacities. Only in rare cases can BoHV-1 reach the brain of infected cattle. BoHV-5 infection induces different degrees of severity of neurological disease depending on both viral and host factors. Although a case of BoHV-5 associated disease in Europe and some outbreaks in USA and Australia have been reported, the current geographical distribution of BoHV-5 infection is mainly restricted to South America, especially Brazil and Argentina. This review focuses on the genomic characteristics, pathobiology and epidemiology of BoHV-5, in order to provide information on the possible basis of alphaherpesvirus neuropathogenesis.

Experimental infection of reindeer with cervid herpesvirus 2.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) has been isolated from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), and serological data indicate that in reindeer this virus is endemic in Fennoscandia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. CvHV2 has been described as a cause of subclinical genital infections in reindeer, but little information on primary infections exists. In this study, six seronegative and presumably pregnant reindeer were allocated to one of two groups. Two animals were inoculated with CvHV2 intratracheally, and two animals intravaginally, with one control animal in each group receiving sterile water. Mild hyperthermia and serous discharges from the vagina and nose were observed. No abortions were recorded, but one calf died shortly after birth. Inoculated animals seroconverted and had neutralizing antibodies after days 7 to 10 postinfection. CvHV2 was detected by PCR in nasal and vaginal swabs from animals in both groups but could be isolated only from nasal swabs in the respiratory group and from vaginal swabs in the genital group. CvHV2 was detected by PCR in various organs and tissues postmortem. In control animals, the virus could not be isolated in spite of PCR-positive nasal and vaginal swab samples and some degree of positive immunostaining. One of the animals that were inoculated intratracheally developed a hemorrhagic, necrotizing bronchopneumonia, which was CvHV2 positive by PCR and immunohistochemistry. We conclude that CvHV2 can cause systemic infection, that both genital and respiratory inoculations can lead to virus shedding, and that the virus can infect the fetus in utero.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 experimentally reactivated in reindeer can produce generalized viremia and abortion.

Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2) has never been isolated from reindeer in Norway, but serological data and investigations by PCR indicate that the virus is endemic in the country, with horizontal and vertical transmission, systemic spread, and latency in the trigeminal ganglion. In this study two seropositive reindeer, one of which was pregnant, were administered dexamethasone, to reactivate CvHV2 latent infection. One control animal received sterile water. All animals including the control reactivated, as shown by amplification of CvHV2 DNA from nasal swabs. The pregnant animal showed lesions in the lip mucosa 10 days after the first dexamethasone injection and CvHV2 was visualized by electron microscopy and isolated from those lesions, as well as from nasal and vaginal swabs. On day 13 she aborted and CvHV2 was isolated from both the aborted calf and the mother. CvHV2 was isolated from the other animal administered dexamethasone. Despite amplification of viral DNA in the control animal, it was never possible to isolate the virus. Molecular characterization of the new isolates confirmed these to be CvHV2, and similar to the previous known strain Salla82. Present results represent the first isolation of CvHV2 in Norway and reconfirm that this virus can cause systemic infections in reindeer even after reactivation episodes, and infect the fetus in utero despite a prompt immune response. While it is not possible to atribute the abortion to CvHV2 alone, present data together with previous reports of vertical transmission of CvHV2 and neonatal death, point to an abortogenic potential, which should be further investigated.

Alphaherpesvirus infections in semidomesticated reindeer: a cross-sectional serological study.

Alphaherpesviruses infect a wide range of animal species and cause diseases. Cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV-2) was originally isolated from reindeer in Finland but the impact of CvHV-2 infections on reindeer remains unclear. CvHV-2 infection could be partly responsible for calf losses as there are indications that it is associated with abortions and neonatal diseases. Previous serosurveys of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) have shown that an alphaherpesvirus is circulating among reindeer in Norway. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of CvHV-2 infection among reindeer in various herding districts in Finnmark, the largest reindeer area in Norway, and to identify factors associated with becoming infected with CvHV-2. A total of 3062 serum samples were tested using an ELISA and a sub-set of samples was further tested using a seroneutralization test. The ELISA revealed that 49% of samples were positive. Extrapolation of the results to the total population (111,350 animals; 66% of the Finnmark reindeer population) showed that the seroprevalence in the population was 48%. Seroprevalence varied from 7.6% to 90.7% between districts and was affected by age, weight and population density. ELISA-positive samples neutralized CvHV-2 at serum dilutions greater than those required for neutralization of bovine herpesvirus type 1. It is concluded that CvHV-2 is endemic throughout the reindeer herding districts of northern Norway.

Characterization of interspecific recombinants generated from closely related bovine herpesviruses 1 and 5 through multiple PCR sequencing assays.

Bovine herpesviruses 1 (BoHV-1) and 5 (BoHV-5) are closely related alphaherpesviruses infecting cattle. In countries where both viruses circulate, co-infection of cattle is likely. It was shown that recombination occurs at a high frequency in cattle infected dually with two BoHV-1 mutants. In addition, interspecific recombinants are generated in cell culture co-infected with BoHV-1 and BoHV-5. Even if the process of interspecific recombination appears inefficient relative to intraspecific recombination, BoHV-1 and BoHV-5 may give rise to interspecific recombinants in co-infected cattle. Since molecular tools for differentiating BoHV-1 from BoHV-5 are limited and do not allow to localize recombination events between these closely related virus species, 13 PCR sequencing assays were developed to discriminate between BoHV-1 and BoHV-5 at regular intervals throughout the entire respective viral DNA genomes. These assays were used to determine the genetic background of two interspecific BoHV-1/-5 recombinants generated previously. The two crossover points where recombination events occurred between the parental strains were determined. This study provides a detailed analysis of two interspecific recombinant viruses generated in vitro from closely related alphaherpesviruses infecting the same natural host. It demonstrates that recombination can occur within very short fragments of sequence homology. This finding raises questions about the mechanisms involved in the strands exchange and resolution step of the homologous recombination used by herpesviruses. This method will allow monitoring generation of recombinants between closely related herpesvirus species both in vitro and in vivo.

Development of a real-time PCR for the detection and quantitation of caprine herpesvirus 1 in goats.

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) is an alphaherpesvirus interfering with goat reproductive performances. The virus is associated with neonatal mortality in kids and reproductive failure in adults. A real-time PCR assay based on TaqMan technology and targeting the gene encoding for glycoprotein C (gC) was developed for detection and quantitation of CpHV-1 in samples collected from infected goats. The detection limit of the assay was 1 x 10(2) standard DNA copies, with a sensitivity of 1-2 logs higher than the conventional gel-based PCR assay targeting the same gene. The real-time PCR was reproducible, as shown by satisfactory low intra-assay and interassay coefficients of variation. The quantitative assay was validated on clinical samples, including genital swabs and various tissue samples collected from goats either infected naturally or experimentally with CpHV-1. The high sensitivity, simplicity and reproducibility of the CpHV-1 fluorogenic PCR assay, combined with its wide dynamic range and high throughput, make this method especially suitable for studies on the pathogenesis and for trials with experimental vaccines and antiviral drugs.

Serological evidence of caprine herpesvirus 1 infection in Mediterranean France.

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) is responsible of a systemic disease in kids and genital diseases inducing abortions in adult goats. In Europe, CpHV-1 is widespread in Mediterranean countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain. As France is geographically close to these countries, a survey was conducted to investigate the presence of CpHV-1 in goats in a Mediterranean department (Corse-du-Sud) and in continental departments (Dordogne and Vendée) of this country. Taking into account the close antigenic and genetic relationships between bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) and CpHV-1, the serological detection was performed by using BoHV-1 glycoproteins B (gB) and E (gE) blocking ELISAs. The analysis of 2548 serum samples in a BoHV-1 gB blocking ELISA revealed that a ruminant alphaherpesvirus infection related to BoHV-1 was widespread in Corse-du-Sud whereas no positive animals was detected in Dordogne and Vendée. Furthermore, the specificity and the sensitivity of the BoHV-1 gB blocking ELISA to detect a BoHV-1 related infection in goats were evaluated. A subsequent analysis by a BoHV-1 gE blocking ELISA demonstrated that 22.6% of gB-positive serum samples were also gE-positive. Cross-seroneutralisation assays afforded the unambiguous identification of antibodies against CpHV-1 in gB-positive goats. The likely presence of CpHV-1 in Corse-du-Sud supported by a high seroprevalence (61.9%) in all investigated flocks extends the number of countries infected with CpHV-1. Moreover, the difference observed between Corse-du-Sud and Dordogne and Vendée suggests that CpHV-1 is more prevalent in Mediterranean countries or regions than in central and northern Europe.

Clinical protection against caprine herpesvirus 1 genital infection by intranasal administration of a live attenuated glycoprotein E negative bovine herpesvirus 1 vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) is responsible of systemic diseases in kids and genital diseases leading to abortions in goats. CpHV-1 is widespread and especially in Mediterranean countries as Greece, Italy and Spain. CpHV-1 is antigenically and genetically closely related to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1). Taking into account the biological properties shared by these two viruses, we decided in the current study to assess the protection of a live attenuated glycoprotein E (gE) negative BoHV-1 vaccine against a genital CpHV-1 infection in goats. RESULTS: The vaccine was inoculated intranasally twice three weeks apart followed by a subsequent CpHV-1 intravaginal challenge which is the natural route of infection in three goats. To analyse the safety and the efficacy of this marker vaccine, two groups of three goats served as controls: one immunised with a virulent CpHV-1 and one uninoculated until the challenge. Goats were clinically monitored and all sampling procedures were carried out in a blind manner. The vaccine did not induce any undesirable local or systemic reaction and goats did not excrete gE-negative BoHV-1. After challenge, a significant reduction in disease severity was observed in immunised goats. Moreover, goats immunised with either gE-negative BoHV-1 or CpHV-1 exhibited a significant reduction in the length and the peak of viral excretion. Antibodies neutralising both BoHV-1 and CpHV-1 were raised in immunised goats. CONCLUSION: Intranasal application of a live attenuated gE-negative BoHV-1 vaccine is able to afford a clinical protection and a reduction of virus excretion in goats challenged by a CpHV-1 genital infection.

Isolation and characterisation of a ruminant alphaherpesvirus closely related to bovine herpesvirus 1 in a free-ranging red deer.

BACKGROUND: The genus Varicellovirus of the Herpesviridae subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae includes a cluster of viruses antigenically and genetically related to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1): namely bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5), bubaline herpesvirus 1 (BuHV-1), caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1), cervid herpesviruses 1 (CvHV-1) and 2 (CvHV-2) and elk herpesvirus 1 (ElkHV-1). Considering the serological relationship between these ruminant alphaherpesviruses, several surveys have studied the occurrence of BoHV-1 related virus infection in wild and domestic ruminant species. In this way, a recent investigation has indicated, in Belgium, a high increase in the serological prevalence of BoHV-1 related virus infection in free-ranging red deer population. In this context, it has been decided to investigate the presence of an alphaherpesvirus spreading in the Belgian free-ranging red deer population. RESULTS: The current study reports the first isolation in a free-ranging red deer of a BoHV-1 closely related virus. The isolate was antigenically, genomically and genetically characterised by comparison with several ruminant alphaherpesvirus. Immunofluorescence assays revealed the isolate was antigenically distinct from bovine and caprine alphaherpesviruses. Similarly, BamHI and BstEII restriction analyses demonstrated the genomic difference between the isolate and the other ruminant alphaherpesviruses. Next, the sequencing of selected parts of UL27 and US8 genes showed a high degree of homologies between each BoHV-1 related ruminant alphaherpesvirus and the isolate. Besides the close relationship between all ruminant alphaherpesviruses, the phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolate clustered with CvHV-1. CONCLUSION: The first isolation of a virus closely related to BoHV-1 in a free-ranging red deer is reported. Data demonstrate that a CvHV-1 strain, named Anlier, circulates in wild red deer in continental Europe. Anlier strain show consistent differences with the virus isolated from Scottish farmed red deer. All together, these results improve our understanding of ruminant alphaherpesviruses.

Potent inhibition of genital herpesvirus infection in goats by cidofovir.

BACKGROUND: Like human herpesvirus 2 (HHV-2) in humans, infection by caprine herpesvirus 1 in goats is associated with genital lesions, and this provides a unique model to study the efficacy and effects of anti-herpetic drugs. METHODS: The antiviral activity of cidofovir was assessed in goats infected experimentally, using various therapeutic protocols. RESULTS: Topic administration of cidofovir 1% cream prevented the onset of virus-induced genital lesions and drastically reduced virus shedding. CONCLUSION: Cidofovir appears to be a very efficient drug for the prevention of genital lesions caused by an alphaherpesvirus.

Bovine herpesvirus 1 infection and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis.

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), classified as an alphaherpesvirus, is a major pathogen of cattle. Primary infection is accompanied by various clinical manifestations such as infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, abortion, infectious pustular vulvovaginitis, and systemic infection in neonates. When animals survive, a life-long latent infection is established in nervous sensory ganglia. Several reactivation stimuli can lead to viral re-excretion, which is responsible for the maintenance of BoHV-1 within a cattle herd. This paper focuses on an updated pathogenesis based on a molecular characterization of BoHV-1 and the description of the virus cycle. Special emphasis is accorded to the impact of the latency and reactivation cycle on the epidemiology and the control of BoHV-1. Several European countries have initiated BoHV-1 eradication schemes because of the significant losses incurred by disease and trading restrictions. The vaccines used against BoHV-1 are described in this context where the differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals is of critical importance to achieve BoHV-1 eradication.

Cidofovir is effective against caprine herpesvirus 1 infection in goats.

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) is a virus able to cause genital infection leading to vulvovaginitis or balanoposthitis in adult goats. CpHV-1 shares several biological similarities with herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2) infection in man, such as genital tropism, type and site of typical lesions and it might provide an animal model for studies on antiviral drugs for HSV-2 infection in man. In this view the efficacy of cidofovir (CDV) drug was tested in six goats intravaginally infected with BA.1 strain of CpHV-1. Three goats received an intravaginal application of 3 ml of a 1% CDV preparation at 4h post infection and then every 12 h for five consecutive days. Three goats were kept as untreated controls. The goats were daily examined for clinical evidence of the infection and viral shedding. CDV was able to protect against disease progression and inhibited the onset of the local lesions due to the CpHV-1 replication. Treated animals shed virus for a shorter period (3 days less) and at lower titres than the control animals. CpHV-1 infection in goats may represent an excellent animal model for the study of novel strategies for the treatment of primary genital HSV-2 infection in man.