DMHPpp1r17 neurons regulate aging and lifespan in mice through hypothalamic-adipose inter-tissue communication.

Recent studies have shown that the hypothalamus functions as a control center of aging in mammals that counteracts age-associated physiological decline through inter-tissue communications. We have identified a key neuronal subpopulation in the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), marked by Ppp1r17 expression (DMHPpp1r17 neurons), that regulates aging and longevity in mice. DMHPpp1r17 neurons regulate physical activity and WAT function, including the secretion of extracellular nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (eNAMPT), through sympathetic nervous stimulation. Within DMHPpp1r17 neurons, the phosphorylation and subsequent nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of Ppp1r17, regulated by cGMP-dependent protein kinase G (PKG; Prkg1), affect gene expression regulating synaptic function, causing synaptic transmission dysfunction and impaired WAT function. Both DMH-specific Prkg1 knockdown, which suppresses age-associated Ppp1r17 translocation, and the chemogenetic activation of DMHPpp1r17 neurons significantly ameliorate age-associated dysfunction in WAT, increase physical activity, and extend lifespan. Thus, these findings clearly demonstrate the importance of the inter-tissue communication between the hypothalamus and WAT in mammalian aging and longevity control.

NAD+ oscillation and hypothalamic neuronal functions.

A substantial body of evidence shows the importance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) biosynthesis and its regulation in a wide range of cellular metabolism. The expression of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) is regulated in a circadian manner by the core clock mechanism and NAD+-dependent sirtuins, producing the circadian oscillation of NAD+. The hypothalamus is a critical center for the homeostatic regulation of metabolism, circadian rhythm, and age-associated physiology. The dysfunction of systemic NAD+ biosynthesis over age affects the functions of hypothalamic neurons, causing age-associated metabolic pathophysiologies, including obesity and age-associated diseases. These recent studies suggest that NAD+ oscillation contributes to the hypothalamic function, and its disruption produces circadian and aging-related metabolic disorders. Furthermore, new studies have demonstrated a novel intertissue NAD+-dependent communication as a potential target for preventing and treating such disorders and for extending the health span of humans.

Slc12a8 is a nicotinamide mononucleotide transporter.

Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is a biosynthetic precursor of NAD+ known to promote cellular NAD+ production and counteract age-associated pathologies associated with a decline in tissue NAD+ levels. How NMN is taken up into cells has not been entirely clear. Here we show that the Slc12a8 gene encodes a specific NMN transporter. We find that Slc12a8 is highly expressed and regulated by NAD+ in the murine small intestine. Slc12a8 knockdown abrogates the uptake of NMN in vitro and in vivo. We further show that Slc12a8 specifically transports NMN, but not nicotinamide riboside, and that NMN transport depends on the presence of sodium ion. Slc12a8 deficiency significantly decreases NAD+ levels in the jejunum and ileum, which is associated with reduced NMN uptake as traced by doubly labeled isotopic NMN. Finally, we observe that Slc12a8 expression is upregulated in the aged murine ileum, which contributes to the maintenance of ileal NAD+ levels. Our work identifies the first NMN transporter and demonstrates that Slc12a8 has a critical role in regulating intestinal NAD+ metabolism.

Hyperactivation of proprioceptors induces microglia-mediated long-lasting pain in a rat model of chronic fatigue syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Patients diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) or fibromyalgia experience chronic pain. Concomitantly, the rat model of CFS exhibits microglial activation in the lumbar spinal cord and pain behavior without peripheral tissue damage and/or inflammation. The present study addressed the mechanism underlying the association between pain and chronic stress using this rat model. METHODS: Chronic or continuous stress-loading (CS) model rats, housed in a cage with a thin level of water (1.5 cm in depth), were used. The von Frey test and pressure pain test were employed to measure pain behavior. The neuronal and microglial activations were immunohistochemically demonstrated with antibodies against ATF3 and Iba1. Electromyography was used to evaluate muscle activity. RESULTS: The expression of ATF3, a marker of neuronal hyperactivity or injury, was first observed in the lumbar dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons 2 days after CS initiation. More than 50% of ATF3-positive neurons simultaneously expressed the proprioceptor markers TrkC or VGluT1, whereas the co-expression rates for TrkA, TrkB, IB4, and CGRP were lower than 20%. Retrograde labeling using fluorogold showed that ATF3-positive proprioceptive DRG neurons mainly projected to the soleus. Substantial microglial accumulation was observed in the medial part of the dorsal horn on the fifth CS day. Microglial accumulation was observed around a subset of motor neurons in the dorsal part of the ventral horn on the sixth CS day. The motor neurons surrounded by microglia were ATF3-positive and mainly projected to the soleus. Electromyographic activity in the soleus was two to three times higher in the CS group than in the control group. These results suggest that chronic proprioceptor activation induces the sequential activation of neurons along the spinal reflex arc, and the neuronal activation further activates microglia along the arc. Proprioceptor suppression by ankle joint immobilization significantly suppressed the accumulation of microglia in the spinal cord, as well as the pain behavior. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that proprioceptor-induced microglial activation may be a key player in the initiation and maintenance of abnormal pain in patients with CFS.

Author Correction: Slc12a8 is a nicotinamide mononucleotide transporter.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Agonists for G-protein-coupled receptor 84 (GPR84) alter cellular morphology and motility but do not induce pro-inflammatory responses in microglia.

BACKGROUND: Several G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been shown to be important signaling mediators between neurons and glia. In our previous screening for identification of nerve injury-associated GPCRs, G-protein-coupled receptor 84 (GPR84) mRNA showed the highest up-regulation by microglia after nerve injury. GPR84 is a pro-inflammatory receptor of macrophages in a neuropathic pain mouse model, yet its function in resident microglia in the central nervous system is poorly understood. METHODS: We used endogenous, natural, and surrogate agonists for GPR84 (capric acid, embelin, and 6-OAU, respectively) and examined their effect on mouse primary cultured microglia in vitro. RESULTS: 6-n-Octylaminouracil (6-OAU), embelin, and capric acid rapidly induced membrane ruffling and motility in cultured microglia obtained from C57BL/6 mice, although these agonists failed to promote microglial pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Concomitantly, 6-OAU suppressed forskolin-induced increase of cAMP in cultured microglia. Pertussis toxin, an inhibitor of Gi-coupled signaling, completely suppressed 6-OAU-induced microglial membrane ruffling and motility. In contrast, no 6-OAU-induced microglial membrane ruffling and motility was observed in microglia from DBA/2 mice, a mouse strain that does not express functional GPR84 protein due to endogenous nonsense mutation of the GPR84 gene. CONCLUSIONS: GPR84 mediated signaling causes microglial motility and membrane ruffling but does not promote pro-inflammatory responses. As GPR84 is a known receptor for medium-chain fatty acids, those released from damaged brain cells may be involved in the enhancement of microglial motility through GPR84 after neuronal injury.

Phospholipid localization implies microglial morphology and function via Cdc42 in vitro.

Under a quiescent state, microglia exhibit a ramified shape, rather than the amoeboid-like morphology following injury or inflammation. The manipulation of microglial morphology in vitro has not been very successful, which has impeded the progress of microglial studies. We demonstrate that lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS), a kind of lysophospholipids, rapidly and substantially alters the morphology of primary cultured microglia to an in vivo-like ramified shape in a receptor independent manner. This mechanism is mediated by Cdc42 activity. LysoPS is incorporated into the plasma membrane and converted to phosphatidylserine (PS) via the Lands' cycle. The accumulated PS on the membrane recruits Cdc42. Both Cdc42 and PS colocalize predominantly in primary and secondary processes, but not in peripheral branches or tips of microglia. Along with the morphological changes LysoPS suppresses inflammatory cytokine production and NF-kB activity. The present study provides a tool to manipulate a microglial phenotype from an amoeboid to a fully ramified in vitro, which certainly contributes to studies exploring microglial physiology and pathology.

Increased a-series gangliosides positively regulate leptin/Ob receptor-mediated signals in hypothalamus of GD3 synthase-deficient mice.

Gangliosides are widely involved in the regulation of cells and organs. However, little is known about their roles in adipose tissues and hypothalamus. In GD3 synthase-knockout (GD3S KO) mice, deletion of b-series gangliosides resulted in the reduction of serum leptin due to disturbed secretion from adipocytes. To examine whether leptin signals altered, leptin/leptin receptor (ObR)-mediated signaling in hypothalamus was analyzed. Hypothalamus of GD3S KO mouse showed increased expression of GM1 and GD1a, and increased activation of ObR-mediated signals such as pSTAT3 and c-Fos. Leptin stimulation of hypothalamus-derived N-41 cells and their transfectants with GD3S cDNA showed that a-series gangliosides positively regulate leptin/ObR-mediated signals. Co-precipitation analysis revealed that ObR interacts with a-series gangliosides with increased association by leptin stimulation. In brown adipose tissues (BAT) of GD3S KO mice, their weights and adipocyte numbers were increased, and BAT markers such as PGC1α and UCP-1 were also up-regulated. These results suggested that leptin/ObRb-mediated signals were enhanced in hypothalamus of GD3S KO mice due to increased a-series gangliosides, leading to the apparently similar features of energy expenditure between the KO and wild type mice.

b-Series gangliosides crucially regulate leptin secretion in adipose tissues.

Gangliosides are widely involved in the regulation of cells and organs. However, little is known about their roles in leptin secretion from adipose tissues. Genetic deletion of b-series gangliosides resulted in the marked reduction of serum leptin. Expression analysis of leptin revealed that leptin accumulated in the adipose tissues of GD3 synthase-knockout (GD3S KO) mice. Analysis of primary cultured stromal vascular fractions (SVF) derived from GD3S KO mice revealed that leptin secretion was reduced, although leptin amounts in cells were increased compared with those of wild type. Interestingly, addition of b-series gangliosides to the culture medium of differentiated SVF resulted in the restoration of leptin secretion. Results of methyl-ß-cyclodextrin treatment of differentiated 3T3-L1 cells as well as immunocytostaining of leptin and caveolin-1 suggested that b-series gangliosides regulate the leptin secretion from adipose tissues in lipid rafts.

A chronic fatigue syndrome model demonstrates mechanical allodynia and muscular hyperalgesia via spinal microglial activation.

Patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) display multiple symptoms, such as chronic widespread pain, fatigue, sleep disturbance, and cognitive dysfunction. Abnormal pain sensation may be the most serious of these symptoms; however, its pathophysiology remains unknown. To provide insights into the molecular basis underlying abnormal pain in CFS and FMS, we used a multiple continuous stress (CS) model in rats, which were housed in a cage with a low level of water (1.5 cm in depth). The von Frey and Randall-Seritto tests were used to evaluate pain levels. Results showed that mechanical allodynia at plantar skin and mechanical hyperalgesia at the anterior tibialis (i.e., muscle pain) were induced by CS loading. Moreover, no signs of inflammation and injury incidents were observed in both the plantar skin and leg muscles. However, microglial accumulation and activation were observed in L4-L6 dorsal horn of CS rats. Quantification analysis revealed a higher accumulation of microglia in the medial part of Layers I-IV of the dorsal horn. To evaluate an implication of microglia in pain, minocycline was intrathecally administrated (via an osmotic pump). Minocycline significantly attenuated CS-induced mechanical hyperalgesia and allodynia. These results indicated that activated microglia were involved in the development of abnormal pain in CS animals, suggesting that the pain observed in CFS and FMS patients may be partly caused by a mechanism in which microglial activation is involved.

Continuous stress promotes expression of VGF in melanotroph via suppression of dopamine.

Prolonged exposure to stress elicits profound effects on homeostasis that may lead to cryptogenic disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome. To investigate the pathophysiology associated with the syndrome, we used a rat continuous stress (CS) model where the pituitary represents one of the most affected organs. Here we found that mRNA for VGF (non-acronymic), a member of the granin family, was induced specifically in the intermediate lobe (IL). This was matched by a concomitant increase at the peptide/protein level assessed by C-terminal antibody. Furthermore, the up-regulation of VGF was confirmed by immunohistochemistry in a subset of melanotrophs. VGF expression was altered in the IL of rats receivingthe dopamine D2 receptor agonist bromocriptine or the antagonist sulpiride. In vitro, dopamine dose-dependently decreased the mRNA levels in cultured melanotrophs. These findings suggest that VGF expression under CS is negatively regulated by dopaminergic neurons projecting from the hypothalamus.