A lipoprotein lipase-GPI-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1 fusion lowers triglycerides in mice: Implications for managing familial chylomicronemia syndrome.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is central to triglyceride metabolism. Severely compromised LPL activity causes familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), which is associated with very high plasma triglyceride levels and increased risk of life-threatening pancreatitis. Currently, no approved pharmacological intervention can acutely lower plasma triglycerides in FCS. Low yield, high aggregation, and poor stability of recombinant LPL have thus far prevented development of enzyme replacement therapy. Recently, we showed that LPL monomers form 1:1 complexes with the LPL transporter glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) and solved the structure of the complex. In the present work, we further characterized the monomeric LPL/GPIHBP1 complex and its derivative, the LPL-GPIHBP1 fusion protein, with the goal of contributing to the development of an LPL enzyme replacement therapy. Fusion of LPL to GPIHBP1 increased yields of recombinant LPL, prevented LPL aggregation, stabilized LPL against spontaneous inactivation, and made it resistant to inactivation by the LPL antagonists angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3) or ANGPTL4. The high stability of the fusion protein enabled us to identify LPL amino acids that interact with ANGPTL4. Additionally, the LPL-GPIHBP1 fusion protein exhibited high enzyme activity in in vitro assays. Importantly, both intravenous and subcutaneous administrations of the fusion protein lowered triglycerides in several mouse strains without causing adverse effects. These results indicate that the LPL-GPIHBP1 fusion protein has potential for use as a therapeutic for managing FCS.

Structure of lipoprotein lipase in complex with GPIHBP1.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) plays a central role in triglyceride (TG) metabolism. By catalyzing the hydrolysis of TGs present in TG-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), LPL facilitates TG utilization and regulates circulating TG and TRL concentrations. Until very recently, structural information for LPL was limited to homology models, presumably due to the propensity of LPL to unfold and aggregate. By coexpressing LPL with a soluble variant of its accessory protein glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) and with its chaperone protein lipase maturation factor 1 (LMF1), we obtained a stable and homogenous LPL/GPIHBP1 complex that was suitable for structure determination. We report here X-ray crystal structures of human LPL in complex with human GPIHBP1 at 2.5-3.0 Å resolution, including a structure with a novel inhibitor bound to LPL. Binding of the inhibitor resulted in ordering of the LPL lid and lipid-binding regions and thus enabled determination of the first crystal structure of LPL that includes these important regions of the protein. It was assumed for many years that LPL was only active as a homodimer. The structures and additional biochemical data reported here are consistent with a new report that LPL, in complex with GPIHBP1, can be active as a monomeric 1:1 complex. The crystal structures illuminate the structural basis for LPL-mediated TRL lipolysis as well as LPL stabilization and transport by GPIHBP1.

Cloning, expression, and enzymatic activity of Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylases.

Pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria are a major public health concern because they are causative agents of life-threatening hospital-acquired infections. Due to the increasing rates of resistance to available antibiotics, there is an urgent need to develop new drugs. Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) is a promising target for the development of novel antibiotics. We describe here the expression, purification, and enzymatic activity of recombinant ACCases from two clinically relevant Gram-negative pathogens, Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Recombinant ACCase subunits (AccAD, AccB, and AccC) were expressed and purified, and the holoenzymes were reconstituted. ACCase enzyme activity was monitored by direct detection of malonyl-coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA) formation by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Steady-state kinetics experiments showed similar k(cat) and K(M) values for both enzymes. In addition, similar IC(50) values were observed for inhibition of both enzymes by a previously reported ACCase inhibitor. To provide a higher throughput assay suitable for inhibitor screening, we developed and validated a luminescence-based ACCase assay that monitors ATP depletion. Finally, we established an enzyme activity assay for the isolated AccAD (carboxyltransferase) subunit, which is useful for determining whether novel ACCase inhibitors inhibit the biotin carboxylase or carboxyltransferase site of ACCase. The methods described here could be applied toward the identification and characterization of novel inhibitors.

Transient expression of an IL-23R extracellular domain Fc fusion protein in CHO vs. HEK cells results in improved plasma exposure.

Transient transfection of mammalian cells in suspension culture has recently emerged as a very useful method for production of research-scale quantities of recombinant proteins. The most commonly used cell lines for this purpose are suspension-adapted HEK and CHO cells. We report here that the plasma exposure in mice of an IL-23R extracellular domain Fc fusion protein (IL23R-Fc) differed dramatically depending on whether the protein was prepared by transient transfection of HEK or CHO cells. Specifically, IL23R-Fc expressed using CHO cells had about 30-fold higher in vivo plasma exposure compared to the HEK-expressed protein. In contrast to their differing plasma exposures, the HEK- and CHO-expressed proteins had equivalent in vitro biological activity. Characterization of the CHO- and HEK-expressed IL23R-Fc proteins indicated that the differences in in vivo plasma exposure between them are due to differential glycosylation.

Secreted PCSK9 promotes LDL receptor degradation independently of proteolytic activity.

PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9) is a secreted serine protease that regulates cholesterol homoeostasis by inducing post-translational degradation of hepatic LDL-R [LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptor]. Intramolecular autocatalytic processing of the PCSK9 zymogen in the endoplasmic reticulum results in a tightly associated complex between the prodomain and the catalytic domain. Although the autocatalytic processing event is required for proper secretion of PCSK9, the requirement of proteolytic activity in the regulation of LDL-R is currently unknown. Co-expression of the prodomain and the catalytic domain in trans allowed for production of a catalytically inactive secreted form of PCSK9. This catalytically inactive PCSK9 was characterized and shown to be functionally equivalent to the wild-type protein in lowering cellular LDL uptake and LDL-R levels. These findings suggest that, apart from autocatalytic processing, the protease activity of PCSK9 is not necessary for LDL-R regulation.

Completion of a Programmable DNA-Binding Small Molecule Library.

Hairpin pyrrole-imidazole (Py-Im) polyamides are programmable oligomers that bind the DNA minor groove in a sequence-specific manner with affinities comparable to those of natural DNA-binding proteins. These cell-permeable small molecules have been shown to enter the nuclei of live cells and downregulate endogenous gene expression. We complete here a library of 27 hairpin Py-Im polyamides which bind 7-base-pair sequences of the general form 5'-WWGNNNW-3' (where W = A or T, N = W, G, or C). Their equilibrium association constants (K(a)) range from K(a) = 1×10(8) M(-1) to 4×10(10) M(-1) with good sequence specificity. A table of binding affinities and sequence contexts for this completed 27-member library has been assembled for the benefit of the chemical biology community interested in molecular control of transcription.

Antioxidant properties of minocycline: neuroprotection in an oxidative stress assay and direct radical-scavenging activity.

Minocycline is neuroprotective in animal models of a number of acute CNS injuries and neurodegenerative diseases. While anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects of minocycline have been characterized, the molecular basis for the neuroprotective effects of minocycline remains unclear. We report here that minocycline and a number of antioxidant compounds protect mixed neuronal cultures in an oxidative stress assay. To evaluate the role of minocycline's direct antioxidant properties in neuroprotection, we determined potencies for minocycline, other tetracycline antibiotics, and reference antioxidant compounds using a panel of in vitro radical scavenging assays. Data from in vitro rat brain homogenate lipid peroxidation and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assays show that minocycline, in contrast to tetracycline, is an effective antioxidant with radical scavenging potency similar to vitamin E. Our findings suggest that the direct antioxidant activity of minocycline may contribute to its neuroprotective effects in some cell-based assays and animal models of neuronal injury.

Kinetics of allopregnanolone formation catalyzed by human 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type III (AKR1C2).

Allopregnanolone is a neurosteroid which exhibits anxiolytic and anticonvulsant activities through potentiation of the GABA(A) receptor. The reduction of 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone (5alpha-DHP), the last step in allopregnanolone biosynthesis, is catalyzed by 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (3alpha-HSDs). While the mechanism of action of allopregnanolone and the physiological and pharmacological modulation of allopregnanolone concentrations in vivo have been extensively studied, there has been little characterization of the kinetics of human 3alpha-HSD catalyzed allopregnanolone formation. We report here determination of the kinetic mechanism for 5alpha-DHP reduction catalyzed by human 3alpha-HSD type III by using steady-state kinetics studies and assessment of the ability of fluoxetine and various other small molecules to activate 3alpha-HSD type III catalyzed allopregnanolone formation. Enzyme-catalyzed 5alpha-DHP reduction yielded two products, allopregnanolone and 5alpha,20alpha-tetrahydroprogesterone, as measured by using a radiometric thin-layer chromatography assay, while 5beta-DHP reduction yielded the neurosteroid pregnanolone as the only product. 5Beta-DHP reduction proceeded with a catalytic efficiency 10 times higher than that of 5alpha-DHP reduction. Two-substrate kinetic analysis and dead-end inhibition studies for 5alpha-DHP reduction and allopregnanolone oxidation indicated that 3alpha-HSD type III utilized a ternary complex (sequential) kinetic mechanism, with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide cofactor binding before steroid substrate and leaving after steroid product. Since previous reports suggested that fluoxetine and certain other small molecules increased allopregnanolone concentrations in vivo by activating 3alpha-HSD type III, we investigated whether these small molecules were able to activate human 3alpha-HSD type III. Our results showed that, at concentrations up to 50 microM, fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, norfluoxetine, carbamazepine, clozapine, flurbiprofen, and sulfobromophthalein did not activate the enzyme. These results characterize the role of 3alpha-HSD type III in allopregnanolone formation and suggest that activation of this enzyme by fluoxetine is likely not the mechanism by which fluoxetine increases allopregnanolone concentrations.

Characterization and purification of truncated human Rho-kinase II expressed in Sf-21 cells.

Rho-kinase II (ROCK-II) is a serine/threonine kinase that is involved in regulation of smooth muscle contraction and has been shown to contribute to the early stages of axon formation in neurons and the regulation of the neuronal cytoskeleton. Much of what is known about Rho-kinase function comes from cell-biological studies, whereas a paucity of biochemical characterization exists for the enzyme. In an effort to characterize ROCK-II biochemically we have cloned a truncated form of human ROCK-II comprising amino acids 1-543 and overexpressed it in Sf-21 cells. Utilizing the Sf-21/baculovirus expression system we isolated milligram quantities of ROCK-II (1-543) and purified the enzyme to near homogeneity. Optimal expression conditions revealed that infection of Sf-21 cells at a multiplicity of infection of 10 for 72h yielded maximal protein expression. Expression of ROCK-II (1-543) as an N-terminal Flag fusion protein allowed a single-step purification yielding greater than 90% homogeneous protein as assessed by SDS-PAGE. Enzyme activity was linear over a range of enzyme concentrations and times. Capture of phosphorylated, biotinylated peptides on streptavidin membrane allowed assessment of peptide substrate preference and measurement of steady-state rate constants. The data indicated that an 11-mer peptide containing Ser235/Ser236 of the S6 ribosomal protein and a 12-mer peptide containing Thr508 of LIM kinase were preferred substrates for ROCK-II (1-543). Finally, staurosporine had an IC(50) value 215-fold more potent than that of the ROCK inhibitor Y-27632. Collectively these data lay the foundation for the beginning of a biochemical characterization for this enzyme and provide methodology for more detailed biochemical, biophysical, and kinetic analysis.

Kinetic mechanism for human Rho-Kinase II (ROCK-II).

Rho-Kinase is a serine/threonine kinase that is involved in the regulation of smooth muscle contraction and cytoskeletal reorganization of nonmuscle cells. While the signal transduction pathway in which Rho-Kinase participates has been and continues to be extensively studied, the kinetic mechanism of Rho-Kinase-catalyzed phosphorylation has not been investigated. We report here elucidation of the kinetic mechanism for Rho-Kinase by using steady-state kinetic studies. These studies used the kinase domain of human Rho-Kinase II (ROCK-II 1-534) with S6 peptide (biotin-AKRRRLSSLRA-NH(2)) as the phosphorylatable substrate. Double-reciprocal plots for two-substrate kinetic data yielded intersecting line patterns with either ATP or S6 peptide as the varied substrate, indicating that Rho-Kinase utilized a ternary complex (sequential) kinetic mechanism. Dead-end inhibition studies were used to investigate the order of binding for ATP and the peptide substrate. The ATP-competitive inhibitors AMP-PCP and Y-27632 were noncompetitive inhibitors versus S6 peptide, and the S6 peptide analogue S6-AA (acetyl-AKRRRLAALRA-NH(2)) was a competitive inhibitor versus S6 peptide and a noncompetitive inhibitor versus ATP. These results indicated a random order of binding for ATP and S6 peptide.

Cooperative Hairpin Dimers for Recognition of DNA by Pyrrole-Imidazole Polyamides.

A doubling of the length of binding site for the same size of ligand is achieved by the title compound by formation of a cooperative hairpin dimer on binding to DNA (depicted schematically below). The binding affinity and selectivity are unaffected by this new binding pattern. Circles represent heterocyclic rings, and diamonds and curved lines represent ß-alanine and (R)-2,4-diaminobutyric acid residues, respectively.