Blood-feeding patterns of Culex pipiens biotype pipiens and pipiens/molestus hybrids in relation to avian community composition in urban habitats.

BACKGROUND: Culex pipiens sensu stricto (s.s.) is considered the primary vector of Usutu virus and West Nile virus, and consists of two morphologically identical but behaviourally distinct biotypes (Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens and Cx. pipiens biotype molestus) and their hybrids. Both biotypes are expected to differ in their feeding behaviour, and pipiens/molestus hybrids are presumed to display intermediate feeding behaviour. However, the evidence for distinct feeding patterns is scarce, and to date no studies have related differences in feeding patterns to differences in host abundance. METHODS: Mosquitoes were collected using CO2-baited traps. We collected blood-engorged Cx. pipiens/torrentium specimens from 12 contrasting urban sites, namely six city parks and six residential areas. Blood engorged Cx. pipiens/torrentium mosquitoes were identified to the species and biotype/hybrid level via real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We performed blood meal analysis via PCR and Sanger sequencing. Additionally, avian host communities were surveyed via vocal sounds and/or visual observation. RESULTS: We selected 64 blood-engorged Cx. pipiens/torrentium mosquitoes of which we successfully determined the host origin of 55 specimens. Of these, 38 belonged to biotype pipiens, 14 were pipiens/molestus hybrids and the identity of three specimens could not be determined. No blood-engorged biotype molestus or Cx. torrentium specimens were collected. We observed no differences in feeding patterns between biotype pipiens and pipiens/molestus hybrids across different habitats. Avian community composition differed between city parks and residential areas, whereas overall avian abundance did not differ between the two habitat types. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show the following: (1) Cx. pipiens s.s. feeding patterns did not differ between city parks and residential areas, regardless of whether individuals were identified as biotype pipiens or pipiens/molestus hybrids. (2) We detected differences in host availability between city parks and residential areas. (3) We show that in both urban habitat types, biotype pipiens and pipiens/molestus hybrids fed on both mammalian and avian hosts. This underscores the potential role in arbovirus transmission of biotype pipiens and pipiens/molestus hybrids.

Distribution of Culex pipiens life stages across urban green and grey spaces in Leiden, The Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: There is an urgent need for cities to become more climate resilient; one of the key strategies is to include more green spaces in the urban environment. Currently, there is a worry that increasing green spaces might increase mosquito nuisance. As such, this study explores a comprehensive understanding of how mosquitoes utilise contrasting grey and green habitats at different life stages and which environmental factors could drive these distributions. METHODS: We used a setup of six paired locations, park (green) vs. residential (grey) areas in a single model city (Leiden, The Netherlands), where we sampled the abundances of different mosquito life stages (eggs, larvae, adults) and the local microclimatic conditions. In this study, we focused on Culex pipiens s.l., which is the most common and abundant mosquito species in The Netherlands. RESULTS: Our results show that while Cx. pipiens ovipositioning rates (number of egg rafts) and larval life stages were far more abundant in residential areas, adults were more abundant in parks. These results coincide with differences in the number of suitable larval habitats (higher in residential areas) and differences in microclimatic conditions (more amenable in parks). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that Cx. pipiens dispersal may be considerably more important than previously thought, where adult Cx. pipiens seek out the most suitable habitat for survival and breeding success. Our findings can inform more targeted and efficient strategies to mitigate and reduce mosquito nuisance while urban green spaces are increased, which make cities more climate resilient.

Effects of antidepressant exposure on aquatic communities assessed by a combination of morphological identification, functional measurements, environmental DNA metabarcoding and bioassays.

The antidepressant fluoxetine is frequently detected in aquatic ecosystems, yet the effects on aquatic communities and ecosystems are still largely unknown. Therefore the aim of this study is to assess the effects of the long-term application of fluoxetine on key components of aquatic ecosystems including macroinvertebrate-, zooplankton-, phytoplankton- and microbial communities and organic matter decomposition by using traditional and non-traditional assessment methods. For this, we exposed 18 outdoor mesocosms (water volume of 1530 L and 10 cm of sediment) to five different concentrations of fluoxetine (0.2, 2, 20 and 200 µg/L) for eight weeks, followed by an eight-week recovery period. We quantified population and community effects by morphological identification, environmental DNA metabarcoding, in vitro and in vivo bioassays and measured organic matter decomposition as a measure of ecosystem functioning. We found effects of fluoxetine on bacterial, algal, zooplankton and macroinvertebrate communities and decomposition rates, mainly for the highest (200 µg/L) treatment. Treatment-related decreases in abundances were found for damselfly larvae (NOEC of 0.2 µg/L) and Sphaeriidae bivalves (NOEC of 20 µg/L), whereas Asellus aquaticus increased in abundance (NOEC <0.2 µg/L). Fluoxetine decreased photosynthetic activity and primary production of the suspended algae community. eDNA assessment provided additional insights by revealing that the algae belonging to the class Cryptophyceae and certain cyanobacteria taxa were the most negatively responding taxa to fluoxetine. Our results, together with results of others, suggest that fluoxetine can alter community structure and ecosystem functioning and that some impacts of fluoxetine on certain taxa can already be observed at environmentally realistic concentrations.

Assessing ecological responses to exposure to the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole in freshwater mesocosms.

Antibiotics are a contaminant class of worldwide concern as they are frequently detected in aquatic ecosystems. To better understand the impacts of antibiotics on aquatic ecosystems, we conducted an outdoor mesocosm experiment in which aquatic communities were exposed to different concentrations of the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (0, 0.15, 1.5, 15 and 150 µg/L). These concentrations include mean (0.15 µg/L) and maximum detected concentrations (15 and 150 µg/L) in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Sulfamethoxazole was applied once a week for eight consecutive weeks to 1530 L outdoor mesocosms in the Netherlands, followed by an eight-week recovery period. We evaluated phytoplankton-, bacterial- and invertebrate responses during and after sulfamethoxazole exposure and assessed impacts on organic matter decomposition. Contrary to our expectations, consistent treatment-related effects on algal and bacterial communities could not be demonstrated. In addition, sulfamethoxazole did not significantly affect zooplankton and macroinvertebrate communities. However, some effects on specific taxa were observed, with an increase in Mesostoma flatworm abundance (NOEC of <0.15 µg/L). In addition, eDNA analyses indicated negative impacts on the insects Odonata at a sulfamethoxazole concentration of 15 µg/L. Overall, environmentally relevant sulfamethoxazole concentration did not result in direct or indirect impairment of entire aquatic communities and ecological processes in our mesocosms. However, several specific macroinvertebrate taxa demonstrated significant (in)direct effects from sulfamethoxazole. Comparison of the results with the literature showed inconsistent results between studies using comparable, environmentally relevant, concentrations. Therefore, our study highlights the importance of testing the ecological impacts of pharmaceuticals (such as sulfamethoxazole) across multiple trophic levels spanning multiple aquatic communities, to fully understand its potential ecological threats.

Metabarcoding read abundances of orchid mycorrhizal fungi are correlated to copy numbers estimated using ddPCR.

Quantifying the abundances of fungi is key to understanding natural variation in mycorrhizal communities in relation to plant ecophysiology and environmental heterogeneity. High-throughput metabarcoding approaches have transformed our ability to characterize and compare complex mycorrhizal communities. However, it remains unclear how well metabarcoding read counts correlate with actual read abundances in the sample, potentially limiting their use as a proxy for species abundances. Here, we use droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) to evaluate the reliability of ITS2 metabarcoding data for quantitative assessments of mycorrhizal communities in the orchid species Neottia ovata sampled at multiple sites. We performed specific ddPCR assays for eight families of orchid mycorrhizal fungi and compared the results with read counts obtained from metabarcoding. Our results demonstrate a significant correlation between DNA copy numbers measured by ddPCR assays and metabarcoding read counts of major mycorrhizal partners of N. ovata, highlighting the usefulness of metabarcoding for quantifying the abundance of orchid mycorrhizal fungi. Yet, the levels of correlation between the two methods and the numbers of false zero values varied across fungal families, which warrants cautious evaluation of the reliability of low-abundance families. This study underscores the potential of metabarcoding data for more quantitative analyses of mycorrhizal communities and presents practical workflows for metabarcoding and ddPCR to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of orchid mycorrhizal communities.

DNA-based seed intake quantification for enhanced ecological risk assessment of small mammals.

To prevent the non-acceptable effects of agrochemicals on arable fields, Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) aims to assess and protect against a wide range of risks due to stressors to non-target species. While exposure to stress is a key factor in ERA models, exposure values are difficult to obtain and rely on laboratory studies with often debatable relevance to field situations. To improve intake estimates, data from realistic field-based scenarios are needed. We developed calibration curves relating known seed numbers of up to 20 onion and carrot seeds consumed by wild-caught wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) to the seed DNA content in the feces. Based on these inferred quantitative relationships, a field trial was run to determine seed intake in a natural setting using realistic levels of seed spillage. Onion DNA was detected in the fecal samples of the wood mice caught in the field, which resembled a seed intake of up to 1 onion seed. No intake of carrot seeds was detected. This is the first-ever study to quantify seed intake in a realistic field scenario using a DNA-based analysis, showing that accurate seed intake estimates can be obtained. Our approach can help to improve risk assessment models through its minimally-invasive and accurate assessment of seed intake by ERA representative and non-target species, which would otherwise be undetectable with traditional methods. Our novel approach and its results are highly relevant to studies of food intake and diet composition for basic and applied research alike.

Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Interconnected Surface Waters as Affected by Agricultural Activities.

Pastures have become one of the most important sources of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) pollution, bringing risks to human health through the environment and the food that is grown there. Another significant source of food production is greenhouse horticulture, which is typically located near pastures. Through waterways, pasture-originated ARGs may transfer to the food in greenhouses. However, how these pasture-originated ARGs spread to nearby waterways and greenhouses has been much less investigated, while this may pose risks to humans through agricultural products. We analyzed 29 ARGs related to the most used antibiotics in livestock in the Netherlands at 16 locations in an agricultural area, representing pastures, greenhouses and lakes. We found that ARGs were prevalent in all surface waters surrounding pastures and greenhouses and showed a similar composition, with sulfonamide ARGs being dominant. This indicates that both pastures and greenhouses cause antibiotic resistance pressures on neighboring waters. However, lower pressures were found in relatively larger and isolated lakes, suggesting that a larger water body or a non-agricultural green buffer zone could help reducing ARG impacts from agricultural areas. We also observed a positive relationship between the concentrations of the class 1 integron (intl1 gene)-used as a proxy for horizontal gene transfer-and ARG concentration and composition. This supports that horizontal gene transfer might play a role in dispersing ARGs through landscapes. In contrast, none of the measured four abiotic factors (phosphate, nitrate, pH and dissolved oxygen) showed any impact on ARG concentrations. ARGs from different classes co-occurred, suggesting simultaneous use of different antibiotics. Our findings help to understand the spatial patterns of ARGs, specifically the impacts of ARGs from pastures and greenhouses on each other and on nearby waterways. In this way, this study guides management aiming at reducing ARGs' risk to human health from agricultural products.

Environmental DNA methylation of Lymnaea stagnalis varies with age and is hypermethylated compared to tissue DNA.

Environmental DNA (eDNA) approaches contributing to species identifications are quickly becoming the new norm in biomonitoring and ecosystem assessments. Yet, information such as age and health state of the population, which is vital to species biomonitoring, has not been accessible from eDNA. DNA methylation has the potential to provide such information on the state of a population. Here, we measured the methylation of eDNA along with tissue DNA (tDNA) of Lymnaea stagnalis at four life stages. We demonstrate that eDNA methylation varies with age and allows distinguishing among age classes. Moreover, eDNA was globally hypermethylated in comparison to tDNA. This difference was age-specific and connected to a limited number of eDNA sites. This differential methylation pattern suggests that eDNA release with age is partially regulated through DNA methylation. Our findings help to understand mechanisms involved in eDNA release and shows the potential of eDNA methylation analysis to assess age classes. Such age class assessments will encourage future eDNA studies to assess fundamental processes of population dynamics and functioning in ecology, biodiversity conservation and impact assessments.

Environmental DNA.

Emilie Didaskalou and colleagues introduce the analysis of DNA form environmental samples.

Establishment of a faecal DNA quantification technique for rare and cryptic diet constituents in small mammals.

DNA-based approaches have greatly improved the applicability of dietary studies aimed at investigating ecological processes. These studies have provided direct insights into, otherwise difficult to measure, interactions between species and trophic levels, food web structure and ecosystem functioning. However, despite these advances, DNA-based methods have struggled to accurately quantify the whole breadth of diet constituents because of methodological biases, such as amplification bias and digestive processes. The present study is, to our knowledge, the first diet study to use droplet digital PCR to quantify diet constituents. We manipulated the diet of wild-caught wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) by feeding them with a known amount of small vegetable seeds (onion and carrot) and quantified the DNA traces of these diet constituents in faecal samples. The sensitivity of the technique combined with the control on the experimental design allowed mitigation of methodological bias. We were able to accurately determine DNA concentrations of small vegetable seeds in the diet of wood mice. Quantification of target DNA demonstrated significant differences in DNA content when one vs. five seeds were consumed. These differences remained significant when the age, sex and other diet constituents of the mice were altered. Different DNA markers, targeting different parts of the chloroplast, influenced onion DNA detectability. However, all onion and carrot markers showed higher DNA content for higher seed numbers. Overall, the sensitive DNA-based approach developed in this study allows for minimally invasive quantification of small diet constituents in faeces, which would otherwise be undetectable with traditional methods.

Environmental DNA metabarcoding reveals comparable responses to agricultural stressors on different trophic levels of a freshwater community.

Freshwater habitats are under stress from agricultural land use, most notably the influx of neonicotinoid pesticides and increased nutrient pressure from fertilizer. Traditional studies investigating the effects of stressors on freshwater systems are often limited to a narrow range of taxa, depending heavily on morphological expertise. Additionally, disentanglement of multiple simultaneous stressors can be difficult in field studies, whereas controlled laboratory conditions do not accurately reflect natural conditions and food webs. To overcome these drawbacks, we investigated the impacts of two agricultural stressors (the neonicotinoid insecticide thiacloprid and fertilizer) in full-factorial design in a semi-natural research site, using environmental DNA sampling to study three different taxonomic groups representing three trophic levels: bacteria (decomposers), phytoplankton (primary producers), and chironomids (consumers). The results show considerable impact of both stressors across trophic levels, with an additive effect of fertilizer and thiacloprid on community composition at all levels. These findings suggest that agricultural stressors affect the entire food web, either directly or through cascade reactions. They are also consistent with morphological assessments that were performed in the same study site, even at a lower number of replicates. The study presented shows that the use of multimarker environmental DNA provides a more comprehensive assessment of stressor impacts across multiple trophic levels, at a higher taxonomic resolution than traditional surveys. Additionally, many putative novel bioindicators for both agricultural stressors were discovered. We encourage further investigations into stressors impacts at different trophic levels, which will lead to more effective monitoring and management of freshwater systems.

The particle size distribution of environmental DNA varies with species and degradation.

Environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis is frequently used as a non-invasive method to investigate species and biodiversity in ecosystems. However, such eDNA may represent both organisms currently present as well as species that released their DNA some point in the past, thereby representing a mix of current and historic biodiversity. This may lead to a false-positive detection of organisms' presence. As the eDNA particle size distribution (PSD) changes along with the decay process, it may facilitate solving the above problem. Here, we set up tank experiments with snails, zebrafish and daphnids, respectively, to monitor the change in eDNA PSD and eDNA degradation through time after removing organisms. We found that zebrafish eDNA decays more slowly for larger particle sizes. Across all species tested, the percentage of large size ranges tended to increase over time while the smaller sizes showed relatively fast decay rates. As a result, PSD changed consistently with eDNA decay, although initial PSD varied between species. In combination, we propose that eDNA PSD can be used to assess the current prevalence of organisms at an eDNA sampling location while avoiding false-positives on the presence of species. Our findings expand the applicability of eDNA for monitoring target species in freshwater ecosystems.

The abundance of arbuscular mycorrhiza in soils is linked to the total length of roots colonized at ecosystem level.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) strongly affect ecosystem functioning. To understand and quantify the mechanisms of this control, knowledge about the relationship between the actual abundance and community composition of AMF in the soil and in plant roots is needed. We collected soil and root samples in a natural dune grassland to test whether, across a plant community, the abundance of AMF in host roots (measured as the total length of roots colonized) is related to soil AMF abundance (using the neutral lipid fatty acids (NLFA) 16:1ω5 as proxy). Next-generation sequencing was used to explore the role of community composition in abundance patterns. We found a strong positive relationship between the total length of roots colonized by AMF and the amount of NLFA 16:1ω5 in the soil. We provide the first field-based evidence of proportional biomass allocation between intra-and extraradical AMF mycelium, at ecosystem level. We suggest that this phenomenon is made possible by compensatory colonization strategies of individual fungal species. Finally, our findings open the possibility of using AMF total root colonization as a proxy for soil AMF abundances, aiding further exploration of the AMF impacts on ecosystems functioning.

Patterns in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA reveal historical and recent isolation in the Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa).

On the basis of morphological differences, three subspecies of Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) have been recognized (L. l. limosa, L. l. islandica and L. l. melanuroides). In previous studies mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data showed minimal genetic divergence between the three subspecies and an absence of sub-structuring within L. l. limosa. Here, population genetic structure and phylogeographic patterns have been analyzed using COI, HVR1 and HVR2 mtDNA sequence data as well as 12 microsatellite loci (nuDNA). The nuDNA data suggest genetic differentiation between L. l. limosa from Sweden and The Netherlands, between L. l. limosa and L. l. islandica, but not between L. l. limosa and L. l. melanuroides. However, the mtDNA data were not consistent with the nuDNA pattern. mtDNA did support a split between L. l. melanuroides and L. l. limosa/L. l. islandica and also demonstrated two L. l. limosa haplotype clusters that were not geographically isolated. This genetic structure can be explained by a scenario of isolation of L. l. melanuroides from L. l. limosa in Beringia during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the Pleistocene separation of L. l. islandica from L. l. limosa occurred, followed by colonization of Iceland by the L. l. islandica during the Holocene. Within L. l. limosa founder events, followed by population expansion, took place during the Holocene also. According to the patterns observed in both markers together and their geographic separation, we propose that the three traditional subspecies indeed represent three separate genetic units.

Characterization of polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers in the black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa: Aves).

We isolated and tested 16 microsatellite loci in black-tailed godwits from the Netherlands (Limosa limosa limosa), and from Australasia (subspecies melanuroides). One locus was monomorphic, two loci had null-alleles and one was significantly heterozygote deficient. The remaining 12 polymorphic loci had on average 7.9 alleles (range 5-11) and the mean expected heterozygosity was 0.69. No significant linkage disequilibrium between the loci was observed and all loci were autosomal. Fourteen loci were successfully cross-amplified in bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica).