Breaking the chains of lipoprotein lipase deficiency: A pediatric perspective on the efficacy and safety of Volanesorsen.

RATIONALE: Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) deficiency, a rare inherited metabolic disorder, is characterized by high triglyceride (TG) levels and life-threatening acute pancreatitis. Current treatment for pediatric patients involves a lifelong severely fat-restricted diet, posing adherence challenges. Volanesorsen, an EMA-approved RNA therapy for adults, effectively reduces TG levels by decreasing the production of apolipoprotein C-III. This 96-week observational open-label study explores Volanesorsen's safety and efficacy in a 13-year-old female with LPL deficiency. METHODS: The patient, with a history of severe TG elevations, 53 hospital admissions, and life-threatening recurrent pancreatitis despite dietary restrictions, received weekly subcutaneous Volanesorsen injections. We designed a protocol for this investigator-initiated study, primarily focusing on changes in fasting TG levels and hospital admissions. RESULTS: While the injections caused occasional pain and swelling, no other adverse events were observed. TG levels decreased during treatment, with more measurements below the pancreatitis risk threshold compared to pre-treatment. No hospital admissions occurred in the initial 14 months of treatment, contrasting with 21 admissions in the 96 weeks before. In the past 10 months, two pancreatitis episodes may have been linked to dietary noncompliance. Dietary restrictions were relaxed, increasing fat intake by 65% compared to baseline. While not fully reflected in the PedsQL, both parents and the patient narratively reported an improved quality of life. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates, for the first time, that Volanesorsen is tolerated in a pediatric patient with severe LPL deficiency and effectively lowers TG levels, preventing life-threatening complications. This warrants consideration for expanded access in this population.

Association Between Lysine Reduction Therapies and Cognitive Outcomes in Patients With Pyridoxine-Dependent Epilepsy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (PDE-ALDH7A1) is a developmental epileptic encephalopathy characterized by seizure improvement after pyridoxine supplementation. Adjunct lysine reduction therapies reduce the accumulation of putative neurotoxic metabolites with the goal to improve developmental outcomes. Our objective was to examine the association between treatment with lysine reduction therapies and cognitive outcomes. METHODS: Participants were recruited from within the International Registry for Patients with Pyridoxine-Dependent Epilepsy from August 2014 through March 2021. The primary outcome was standardized developmental test scores associated with overall cognitive ability. The relationship between test scores and treatment was analyzed with multivariable linear regression using a mixed-effects model. A priori, we hypothesized that treatment in early infancy with pyridoxine and lysine reduction therapies would result in a normal developmental outcome. A sub-analysis was performed to evaluate the association between cognitive outcome and lysine reduction therapies initiated in the first six months of life. RESULTS: A total of 112 test scores from 60 participants were available. On average, treatment with pyridoxine and lysine reduction therapies was associated with a non-significant increase of 6.9 points (95% CI -2.7 to 16.5) on developmental testing compared to treatment with pyridoxine alone. For the sub-analysis, a total of 14 developmental testing scores were available from 8 participants. On average, treatment with pyridoxine and lysine reduction therapies in the first six months of life was associated with a significant increase of 21.9 points (95% CI 1.7 to 42.0) on developmental testing. DISCUSSION: Pyridoxine and lysine reduction therapies at any age was associated with mild improvement in developmental testing and treatment in early infancy was associated with a clinically significant increase in developmental test scores. These results provide insight into the mechanism of intellectual and developmental disability in PDE-ALDH7A1 and emphasize the importance of treatment in early infancy with both pyridoxine and lysine reduction therapies. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class IV evidence that in PDE-ALDH7A1, pyridoxine plus lysine reduction therapies compared to pyridoxine alone is not significantly associated with overall higher developmental testing scores, but treatment in the first six months of life is associated with significantly higher developmental testing scores.

Clinical Reasoning: Pediatric Seizures of Unknown Cause.

We describe a neonate and a 14-month-old child presenting with seizures that were not (completely) controlled with antiepileptic medications. There were no signs of infection, and electrolytes and neuroimaging were normal. In the neonate, pyridoxine was administered followed by cessation of seizures, and a diagnosis of pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (PDE-ALDH7A1, a neurometabolic disorder of lysine metabolism) was genetically confirmed. The 14-month-old child received a genetic diagnosis of PDE-ALDH7A1 after abnormalities in the metabolic investigations. Both children were treated with pyridoxine and adjunct lysine reduction therapy (LRT). Seizures were controlled completely, but both children are developmentally delayed. During her second pregnancy, the mother of the neonate was started on pyridoxine treatment because of the risk of PDE-ALDH7A1. After delivery, pyridoxine treatment was continued in the neonate, who did not show any clinical symptoms. Molecular analysis identified the familial variants consistent with the diagnosis of PDE-ALDH7A1. Adjunct LRT was initiated. This child has never experienced seizures, and development has been completely normal thus far (age 2.9 years), despite the shared genotype with their sibling with developmental delays (DDs). In conclusion, in neonates, infants, and children presenting with seizures of unknown origin with partial or no response to common antiepileptic medications, the diagnosis of PDE-ALDH7A1 or other pyridoxine-responsive genetic epilepsies should be considered, prompting a trial of pyridoxine as "diagnostic therapeuticum." The digital application Treatable-ID (treatable-id.org) can support clinicians in the early diagnosis of treatable conditions in patients presenting with DD/intellectual disability of unknown cause.

Timing of therapy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in 18 families with pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Seventy-five percent of patients with pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy due to α-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency (PDE-ALDH7A1) suffer intellectual developmental disability despite pyridoxine treatment. Adjunct lysine reduction therapies (LRT), aimed at lowering putative neurotoxic metabolites, are associated with improved cognitive outcomes. However, possibly due to timing of treatment, not all patients have normal intellectual function. METHODS: This retrospective, multi-center cohort study evaluated the effect of timing of pyridoxine monotherapy and pyridoxine with adjunct LRT on neurodevelopmental outcome. Patients with confirmed PDE-ALDH7A1 with at least one sibling with PDE-ALDH7A1 and a difference in age at treatment initiation were eligible and identified via the international PDE registry, resulting in thirty-seven patients of 18 families. Treatment regimen was pyridoxine monotherapy in ten families and pyridoxine with adjunct LRT in the other eight. Primary endpoints were standardized and clinically assessed neurodevelopmental outcomes. Clinical neurodevelopmental status was subjectively assessed over seven domains: overall neurodevelopment, speech/language, cognition, fine and gross motor skills, activities of daily living and behavioral/psychiatric abnormalities. RESULTS: The majority of early treated siblings on pyridoxine monotherapy performed better than their late treated siblings on the clinically assessed domain of fine motor skills. For siblings on pyridoxine and adjunct LRT, the majority of early treated siblings performed better on clinically assessed overall neurodevelopment, cognition, and behavior/psychiatry. Fourteen percent of the total cohort was assessed as normal on all domains. CONCLUSION: Early treatment with pyridoxine and adjunct LRT may be beneficial for neurodevelopmental outcome. When evaluating a more extensive neurodevelopmental assessment, the actual impairment rate may be higher than the 75% reported in literature. TAKE- HOME MESSAGE: Early initiation of lysine reduction therapies adjunct to pyridoxine treatment in patients with PDE-ALDH7A1 may result in an improved neurodevelopmental outcome.

A case for newborn screening for pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy due to mutations in ALDH7A1 (PDH-ALDH7A1) is a highly treatable developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. Pharmacologic doses of pyridoxine are associated with dramatic clinical seizure improvement, and most patients achieve adequate seizure control with pyridoxine alone. Unfortunately, some patients with PDE-ALDH7A1 have died prior to when the diagnosis was made and subsequent treatment with pyridoxine could be implemented, highlighting the importance of a timely diagnosis. Although critical for seizure control, pyridoxine treatment alone is not sufficient for normal outcomes as most patients suffer intellectual and developmental delay. Adjunct lysine reduction therapies are associated with significant developmental improvements, although these treatments have limited efficacy if delayed after the first few months of life. Recently two biomarkers were identified that overcome previous technical hurdles for newborn screening. Herein we provide commentary that PDE-ALDH7A1 meets both current and historic criteria for newborn screening, and that a neonatal diagnosis and treatment can both reduce mortality from uncontrolled seizures and significantly improve the cognitive delay that is pervasive in this treatable disorder.

Untargeted metabolomics and infrared ion spectroscopy identify biomarkers for pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

BackgroundPyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (PDE-ALDH7A1) is an inborn error of lysine catabolism that presents with refractory epilepsy in newborns. Biallelic ALDH7A1 variants lead to deficiency of α-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase/antiquitin, resulting in accumulation of piperideine-6-carboxylate (P6C), and secondary deficiency of the important cofactor pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP, active vitamin B6) through its complexation with P6C. Vitamin B6 supplementation resolves epilepsy in patients, but intellectual disability may still develop. Early diagnosis and treatment, preferably based on newborn screening, could optimize long-term clinical outcome. However, no suitable PDE-ALDH7A1 newborn screening biomarkers are currently available.MethodsWe combined the innovative analytical methods untargeted metabolomics and infrared ion spectroscopy to discover and identify biomarkers in plasma that would allow for PDE-ALDH7A1 diagnosis in newborn screening.ResultsWe identified 2S,6S-/2S,6R-oxopropylpiperidine-2-carboxylic acid (2-OPP) as a PDE-ALDH7A1 biomarker, and confirmed 6-oxopiperidine-2-carboxylic acid (6-oxoPIP) as a biomarker. The suitability of 2-OPP as a potential PDE-ALDH7A1 newborn screening biomarker in dried bloodspots was shown. Additionally, we found that 2-OPP accumulates in brain tissue of patients and Aldh7a1-knockout mice, and induced epilepsy-like behavior in a zebrafish model system.ConclusionThis study has opened the way to newborn screening for PDE-ALDH7A1. We speculate that 2-OPP may contribute to ongoing neurotoxicity, also in treated PDE-ALDH7A1 patients. As 2-OPP formation appears to increase upon ketosis, we emphasize the importance of avoiding catabolism in PDE-ALDH7A1 patients.FundingSociety for Inborn Errors of Metabolism for Netherlands and Belgium (ESN), United for Metabolic Diseases (UMD), Stofwisselkracht, Radboud University, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Dutch Research Council (NWO), and the European Research Council (ERC).

Treatable inherited metabolic disorders causing intellectual disability: 2021 review and digital app.

BACKGROUND: The Treatable ID App was created in 2012 as digital tool to improve early recognition and intervention for treatable inherited metabolic disorders (IMDs) presenting with global developmental delay and intellectual disability (collectively 'treatable IDs'). Our aim is to update the 2012 review on treatable IDs and App to capture the advances made in the identification of new IMDs along with increased pathophysiological insights catalyzing therapeutic development and implementation. METHODS: Two independent reviewers queried PubMed, OMIM and Orphanet databases to reassess all previously included disorders and therapies and to identify all reports on Treatable IDs published between 2012 and 2021. These were included if listed in the International Classification of IMDs (ICIMD) and presenting with ID as a major feature, and if published evidence for a therapeutic intervention improving ID primary and/or secondary outcomes is available. Data on clinical symptoms, diagnostic testing, treatment strategies, effects on outcomes, and evidence levels were extracted and evaluated by the reviewers and external experts. The generated knowledge was translated into a diagnostic algorithm and updated version of the App with novel features. RESULTS: Our review identified 116 treatable IDs (139 genes), of which 44 newly identified, belonging to 17 ICIMD categories. The most frequent therapeutic interventions were nutritional, pharmacological and vitamin and trace element supplementation. Evidence level varied from 1 to 3 (trials, cohort studies, case-control studies) for 19% and 4-5 (case-report, expert opinion) for 81% of treatments. Reported effects included improvement of clinical deterioration in 62%, neurological manifestations in 47% and development in 37%. CONCLUSION: The number of treatable IDs identified by our literature review increased by more than one-third in eight years. Although there has been much attention to gene-based and enzyme replacement therapy, the majority of effective treatments are nutritional, which are relatively affordable, widely available and (often) surprisingly effective. We present a diagnostic algorithm (adjustable to local resources and expertise) and the updated App to facilitate a swift and accurate workup, prioritizing treatable IDs. Our digital tool is freely available as Native and Web App (www.treatable-id.org) with several novel features. Our Treatable ID endeavor contributes to the Treatabolome and International Rare Diseases Research Consortium goals, enabling clinicians to deliver rapid evidence-based interventions to our rare disease patients.

Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy due to α-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency.

Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (PDE-ALDH7A1) is an autosomal recessive condition due to a deficiency of α-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, which is a key enzyme in lysine oxidation. PDE-ALDH7A1 is a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy that was historically and empirically treated with pharmacologic doses of pyridoxine. Despite adequate seizure control, most patients with PDE-ALDH7A1 were reported to have developmental delay and intellectual disability. To improve outcome, a lysine-restricted diet and competitive inhibition of lysine transport through the use of pharmacologic doses of arginine have been recommended as an adjunct therapy. These lysine-reduction therapies have resulted in improved biochemical parameters and cognitive development in many but not all patients. The goal of these consensus guidelines is to re-evaluate and update the two previously published recommendations for diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of patients with PDE-ALDH7A1. Members of the International PDE Consortium initiated evidence and consensus-based process to review previous recommendations, new research findings, and relevant clinical aspects of PDE-ALDH7A1. The guideline development group included pediatric neurologists, biochemical geneticists, clinical geneticists, laboratory scientists, and metabolic dieticians representing 29 institutions from 16 countries. Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with PDE-ALDH7A1 are provided.

Glutaminase Deficiency Caused by Short Tandem Repeat Expansion in GLS.

We report an inborn error of metabolism caused by an expansion of a GCA-repeat tract in the 5' untranslated region of the gene encoding glutaminase (GLS) that was identified through detailed clinical and biochemical phenotyping, combined with whole-genome sequencing. The expansion was observed in three unrelated patients who presented with an early-onset delay in overall development, progressive ataxia, and elevated levels of glutamine. In addition to ataxia, one patient also showed cerebellar atrophy. The expansion was associated with a relative deficiency of GLS messenger RNA transcribed from the expanded allele, which probably resulted from repeat-mediated chromatin changes upstream of the GLS repeat. Our discovery underscores the importance of careful examination of regions of the genome that are typically excluded from or poorly captured by exome sequencing.

P4 medicine for epilepsy and intellectual disability: nutritional therapy for inherited metabolic disease.

Early identification and treatment of inherited metabolic diseases (IMDs) are essential to prevent and minimize intellectual disability (ID) and epilepsy. The oldest form of treatment, nutritional modulation, has proved beneficial for many IMDs. These conditions represent a promising model for P4 medicine - predictive, preventive, personalized, and participatory - specifically through the interpretation of individual genetic, pathophysiological, and clinical characteristics. More than 1000 IMDs have been described, and for these different nutritional modulation strategies are applied, varying from substrate reduction, supplementation of vitamins for catalyzation of enzymatic reactions or supplementation of amino acids or other nutrients, to substitution for deficient or inactivated products. This review provides an overview of all IMDs presenting with epilepsy and/or ID amenable to nutritional modulation; these are 85 in number, belonging to 27 categories. Therapeutic strategies include protein-restricted diet, ketogenic diet, fat-restricted diet, lactose-restricted diet; supplementation of amino acids, carbohydrates, or others; and supplementation of vitamins or cofactors as well as a sick-day protocol. Nutritional therapies are generally safe, affordable, and accessible, but compliance is an issue. Three different types of response exist: (1) a positive effect on seizure control and/or psychomotor development; (2) efficacy in prevention of decompensation but ongoing damage occurs; and (3) insufficient insights or evidence to establish the treatment as effective. For the latter category, we describe pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy as a case vignette for P4 medicine, discuss the benefits and challenges of nutritional modulation in IMDs, and outline novel approaches and solutions.

A Scoping Review of Inborn Errors of Metabolism Causing Progressive Intellectual and Neurologic Deterioration (PIND).

Background: Progressive intellectual and neurological deterioration (PIND) is a rare but severe childhood disorder characterized by loss of intellectual or developmental abilities, and requires quick diagnosis to ensure timely treatment to prevent possible irreversible neurological damage. Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) constitute a group of more than 1,000 monogenic conditions in which the impairment of a biochemical pathway is intrinsic to the pathophysiology of the disease, resulting in either accumulation of toxic metabolites and/or shortage of energy and building blocks for the cells. Many IEMs are amenable to treatment with the potential to improve outcomes. With this literature review we aim to create an overview of IEMs presenting with PIND in children, to aid clinicians in accelerating the diagnostic process. Methods: We performed a PubMed search on IEMs presenting with PIND in individuals aged 0-18 years. We applied stringent selection criteria and subsequently derived information on encoding genes, pathways, clinical and biochemical signs and diagnostic tests from IEMbase (www.iembase.org) and other sources. Results: The PubMed search resulted in a total of 2,152 articles and a review of references added another 19 articles. After applying our selection criteria, a total of 85 IEMs presenting with PIND remained, of which 57 IEMs were reported in multiple unrelated cases and 28 in single families. For 44 IEMs (52%) diagnosis can be achieved through generally accessible metabolic blood and urine screening tests; the remainder requires enzymatic and/or genetic testing. Treatment targeting the underlying pathophysiology is available for 35 IEMs (41%). All treatment strategies are reported to achieve stabilization of deterioration, and a subset improved seizure control and/or neurodevelopment. Conclusions: We present the first comprehensive overview of IEMs presenting with PIND, and provide a structured approach to diagnosis and overview of treatability. Clearly IEMs constitute the largest group of genetic PIND conditions and have the advantage of detectable biomarkers as well as amenability to treatment. Thus, the clinician should keep IEMs at the forefront of the diagnostic workup of a child with PIND. With the ongoing discovery of new IEMs, expanded phenotypes, and novel treatment strategies, continuous updates to this work will be required.

Metabolic Evaluation of Epilepsy: A Diagnostic Algorithm With Focus on Treatable Conditions.

Although inborn errors of metabolism do not represent the most common cause of seizures, their early identification is of utmost importance, since many will require therapeutic measures beyond that of common anti-epileptic drugs, either in order to control seizures, or to decrease the risk of neurodegeneration. We translate the currently-known literature on metabolic etiologies of epilepsy (268 inborn errors of metabolism belonging to 21 categories, with 74 treatable errors), into a 2-tiered diagnostic algorithm, with the first-tier comprising accessible, affordable, and less invasive screening tests in urine and blood, with the potential to identify the majority of treatable conditions, while the second-tier tests are ordered based on individual clinical signs and symptoms. This resource aims to support the pediatrician, neurologist, biochemical, and clinical geneticists in early identification of treatable inborn errors of metabolism in a child with seizures, allowing for timely initiation of targeted therapy with the potential to improve outcomes.

Complications and Disease Recurrence After Primary Ileocecal Resection in Pediatric Crohn's Disease: A Multicenter Cohort Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Studies on the outcome of ileocecal resection in pediatric Crohn's disease (CD) have a limited follow-up and fail to assign predictors of adverse outcomes. Therefore, we aimed to investigate (I) the complication and disease recurrence rates and (II) identify risk factors for these adverse outcomes after ileocecal resection for pediatric CD. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort analysis of all children (<18 years) that underwent ileocecal resection as first intestinal resection for CD derived from 7 tertiary hospitals in the Netherlands (1990-2015). Risk factors were identified using multivariable analysis. RESULTS: In total, 122 children were included (52% male; median age 15.5 years [interquartile range 14.0-16.0]). Severe postoperative complications rate was 10%. Colonic disease (odds ratio: 5.6 [95% confidence interval {CI}: 1.3-26.3], P = 0.024), microscopically positive resection margins (odds ratio: 10.4 [95% CI: 1.1-100.8] P = 0.043), and emergency surgery (odds ratio: 6.8 [95% CI: 1.1-42.2], P = 0.038) were risk factors for severe complications. Clinical and surgical recurrence rates after 1, 5 and 10 years were 19%, 49%, 71% and 2%, 12%, 22%, respectively. Female sex (hazard ratio [HR]: 2.1 [95% CI: 1.1-3.8], P = 0.023) was a risk factor for clinical recurrence, whereas ileocecal disease (HR: 3.9 [95% CI: 1.2-12.5], P = 0.024) and microscopically positive resection margins (HR: 9.6 [95% CI: 1.2-74.5], P = 0.031) were risk factors for surgical recurrence. Immediate postoperative therapy reduced the risk of both clinical (HR: 0.3 [95% CI: 0.1-0.6], P = 0.001) and surgical (HR: 0.5 [95% CI: 0.1-0.9], P = 0.035) recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Ileocecal resection is an effective and durable treatment of pediatric CD, although postoperative complications occur frequently. Postoperative therapy may be started immediately to prevent disease recurrence.