Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on ruminating, grazing, and bedding time in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis).

Rumination is the repeated process of regurgitation of a food bolus, followed by chewing, swallowing, and regurgitation, which enhance nutrient assimilation. Time spent in lateral recumbency (i.e., bedded, lying) has often been used as a proxy for time spent ruminating due to difficulties of observing detailed rumination behavior in the field. The actual proportion of time spent ruminating, or other activities, will in turn be affected by the age and sex of an individual but also with changes in food quality. We studied the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on time spent ruminating, bedding, proportion of bedding time spent ruminating, and grazing of individually marked bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Our results show that bighorn sheep spent more time ruminating and less time grazing in summer and autumn. Overall, females spent less time ruminating, and more time grazing than males. Bighorn sheep decreased their time spent ruminating with increasing acid detergent fiber (ADF) content in the forage. Age influenced the time spent grazing, bedded and proportion of bedded time spent ruminating. Older sheep not only increased their bedding time but also their time spent bedded without ruminating compared to younger individuals. The proportion of time spent grazing was also affected by age, with a decrease in the proportion of time spent grazing with increasing age. Our results suggest that these four behaviors are plastic and variable. We thus conclude that bedding time does not reflect time spent ruminating but that the latter is affected by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

Antibodies elicited by the first non-viral prophylactic cancer vaccine show tumor-specificity and immunotherapeutic potential.

MUC1 is a shared tumor antigen expressed on >80% of human cancers. We completed the first prophylactic cancer vaccine clinical trial based on a non-viral antigen, MUC1, in healthy individuals at-risk for colon cancer. This trial provided a unique source of potentially effective and safe immunotherapeutic drugs, fully-human antibodies affinity-matured in a healthy host to a tumor antigen. We purified, cloned, and characterized 13 IgGs specific for several tumor-associated MUC1 epitopes with a wide range of binding affinities. These antibodies bind hypoglycosylated MUC1 on human cancer cell lines and tumor tissues but show no reactivity against fully-glycosylated MUC1 on normal cells and tissues. We found that several antibodies activate complement-mediated cytotoxicity and that T cells carrying chimeric antigen receptors with the antibody variable regions kill MUC1(+) target cells, express activation markers, and produce interferon gamma. Fully-human and tumor-specific, these antibodies are candidates for further testing and development as immunotherapeutic drugs.

6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase links oxidative PPP, lipogenesis and tumour growth by inhibiting LKB1-AMPK signalling.

The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) contributes to tumour growth, but the precise contribution of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), the third enzyme in this pathway, to tumorigenesis remains unclear. We found that suppression of 6PGD decreased lipogenesis and RNA biosynthesis and elevated ROS levels in cancer cells, attenuating cell proliferation and tumour growth. 6PGD-mediated production of ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru-5-P) inhibits AMPK activation by disrupting the active LKB1 complex, thereby activating acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 and lipogenesis. Ru-5-P and NADPH are thought to be precursors in RNA biosynthesis and lipogenesis, respectively; thus, our findings provide an additional link between the oxidative PPP and lipogenesis through Ru-5-P-dependent inhibition of LKB1-AMPK signalling. Moreover, we identified and developed 6PGD inhibitors, physcion and its derivative S3, that effectively inhibited 6PGD, cancer cell proliferation and tumour growth in nude mice xenografts without obvious toxicity, suggesting that 6PGD could be an anticancer target.

Lysine acetylation activates 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase to promote tumor growth.

Although the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway is important for tumor growth, how 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) in this pathway is upregulated in human cancers is unknown. We found that 6PGD is commonly activated in EGF-stimulated cells and human cancer cells by lysine acetylation. Acetylation at K76 and K294 of 6PGD promotes NADP(+) binding to 6PGD and formation of active 6PGD dimers, respectively. Moreover, we identified DLAT and ACAT2 as upstream acetyltransferases of K76 and K294, respectively, and HDAC4 as the deacetylase of both sites. Expressing acetyl-deficient mutants of 6PGD in cancer cells significantly attenuated cell proliferation and tumor growth. This is due in part to reduced levels of 6PGD products ribulose-5-phosphate and NADPH, which led to reduced RNA and lipid biosynthesis as well as elevated ROS. Furthermore, 6PGD activity is upregulated with increased lysine acetylation in primary leukemia cells from human patients, providing mechanistic insights into 6PGD upregulation in cancer cells.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus virulence in cattle is co-determined by viral replication dynamics and route of infection.

Early events in the pathogenesis of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection in cattle were investigated through aerosol and intraepithelial lingual (IEL) inoculations of a cDNA-derived FMDV-A24 wild type virus (FMDV-WT) or a mutant derived from the same clone (FMDV-Mut). After aerosolization of FMDV-WT, primary infection sites had significantly greater quantities of FMDV, viral RNA, and type I/III interferon (IFN) activity compared to corresponding tissues from cattle infected with FMDV-Mut. Additionally, FMDV-WT-infected cattle had marked induction of systemic IFN activity in serum. In contrast, FMDV-Mut aerosol-infected cattle did not manifest systemic IFN response nor had viremia. Interestingly, IEL inoculation of FMDV-Mut in cattle restored the virulent phenotype and systemic IFN response. These data indicate that the attenuated phenotype in cattle is associated with decreased replicative efficiency, reflected by decreased innate response. However, attenuation is abrogated by bypassing the common primary infection sites, inducing accelerated viral replication at the inoculation site.

Tyr phosphorylation of PDP1 toggles recruitment between ACAT1 and SIRT3 to regulate the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.

Mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is crucial for glucose homeostasis in mammalian cells. The current understanding of PDC regulation involves inhibitory serine phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) by PDH kinase (PDK), whereas dephosphorylation of PDH by PDH phosphatase (PDP) activates PDC. Here, we report that lysine acetylation of PDHA1 and PDP1 is common in epidermal growth factor (EGF)-stimulated cells and diverse human cancer cells. K321 acetylation inhibits PDHA1 by recruiting PDK1, and K202 acetylation inhibits PDP1 by dissociating its substrate PDHA1, both of which are important in promoting glycolysis in cancer cells and consequent tumor growth. Moreover, we identified mitochondrial ACAT1 and SIRT3 as the upstream acetyltransferase and deacetylase, respectively, of PDHA1 and PDP1, while knockdown of ACAT1 attenuates tumor growth. Furthermore, Y381 phosphorylation of PDP1 dissociates SIRT3 and recruits ACAT1 to PDC. Together, hierarchical, distinct posttranslational modifications act in concert to control molecular composition of PDC and contribute to the Warburg effect.

The prometastatic ribosomal S6 kinase 2-cAMP response element-binding protein (RSK2-CREB) signaling pathway up-regulates the actin-binding protein fascin-1 to promote tumor metastasis.

Metastasis is the leading cause of death in patients with breast, lung, and head and neck cancers. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying metastases in these cancers remain unclear. We found that the p90 ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2)-cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway is commonly activated in diverse metastatic human cancer cells, leading to up-regulation of a CREB transcription target Fascin-1. We also observed that the protein expression patterns of RSK2 and Fascin-1 correlate in primary human tumor tissue samples from head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients. Moreover, knockdown of RSK2 disrupts filopodia formation and bundling in highly invasive cancer cells, leading to attenuated cancer cell invasion in vitro and tumor metastasis in vivo, whereas expression of Fascin-1 significantly rescues these phenotypes. Furthermore, targeting RSK2 with the small molecule RSK inhibitor FMK-MEA effectively attenuated the invasive and metastatic potential of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Taken together, our findings for the first time link RSK2-CREB signaling to filopodia formation and bundling through the up-regulation of Fascin-1, providing a proinvasive and prometastatic advantage to human cancers. Therefore, protein effectors of the RSK2-CREB-Fascin-1 pathway represent promising biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the clinical prognosis and treatment of metastatic human cancers.

p90 RSK2 mediates antianoikis signals by both transcription-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

How invasive and metastatic tumor cells evade anoikis induction remains unclear. We found that knockdown of RSK2 sensitizes diverse cancer cells to anoikis induction, which is mediated through phosphorylation targets including apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and cyclic AMP (cAMP) response element-binding protein (CREB). We provide evidence to show that RSK2 inhibits ASK1 by phosphorylating S83, T1109, and T1326 through a novel mechanism in which phospho-T1109/T1326 inhibits ATP binding to ASK1, while phospho-S83 attenuates ASK1 substrate MKK6 binding. Moreover, the RSK2→CREB signaling pathway provides antianoikis protection by regulating gene expression of protein effectors that are involved in cell death regulation, including the antiapoptotic factor protein tyrosine kinase 6 (PTK6) and the proapoptotic factor inhibitor-of-growth protein 3 (ING3). PTK6 overexpression or ING3 knockdown in addition to ASK1 knockdown further rescued the increased sensitivity to anoikis induction in RSK2 knockdown cells. These data together suggest that RSK2 functions as a signal integrator to provide antianoikis protection to cancer cells in both transcription-independent and -dependent manners, in part by signaling through ASK1 and CREB, and contributes to cancer cell invasion and tumor metastasis.

Direct contact transmission of three different foot-and-mouth disease virus strains in swine demonstrates important strain-specific differences.

A novel direct contact transmission model for the study of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection of swine was utilized to investigate transmission characteristics of three FMDV strains belonging to serotypes A, O and Asia1. Each strain demonstrated distinct transmission characteristics and required different exposure times to achieve successful contact transmission. While a 4h exposure was sufficient for strain A24 Cruzeiro (A24Cru), both O1 Manisa and Asia1 Shamir transmission required 18 h or more. Viral excretion levels from donors (for all three strains) and virus present in room air (for A24Cru and O1 Manisa) were evaluated and associated with clinical signs and observed transmission pattern. Although all directly inoculated donor animals showed acute FMD, A24Cru had the highest levels of viral shedding in saliva and nasal swabs followed by O1 Manisa and Asia1 Shamir. Virus levels in room air were higher and were detected longer for A24Cru than for O1 Manisa. These results provide direct evidence for important strain-specific variation in transmission characteristics and emphasize the need for thorough evaluation of different FMDV viral strains using a well defined contact transmission methodology. This information is critical for vaccine and biotherapeutic efficacy testing, pathogenesis and disease modeling of FMDV transmission.

Survey of activated FLT3 signaling in leukemia.

Activating mutations of FMS-like tyrosine kinase-3 (FLT3) are found in approximately 30% of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). FLT3 is therefore an attractive drug target. However, the molecular mechanisms by which FLT3 mutations lead to cell transformation in AML remain unclear. To develop a better understanding of FLT3 signaling as well as its downstream effectors, we performed detailed phosphoproteomic analysis of FLT3 signaling in human leukemia cells. We identified over 1000 tyrosine phosphorylation sites from about 750 proteins in both AML (wild type and mutant FLT3) and B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (normal and amplification of FLT3) cell lines. Furthermore, using stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC), we were able to quantified over 400 phosphorylation sites (pTyr, pSer, and pThr) that were responsive to FLT3 inhibition in FLT3 driven human leukemia cell lines. We also extended this phosphoproteomic analysis on bone marrow from primary AML patient samples, and identify over 200 tyrosine and 800 serine/threonine phosphorylation sites in vivo. This study showed that oncogenic FLT3 regulates proteins involving diverse cellular processes and affects multiple signaling pathways in human leukemia that we previously appreciated, such as Fc epsilon RI-mediated signaling, BCR, and CD40 signaling pathways. It provides a valuable resource for investigation of oncogenic FLT3 signaling in human leukemia.

Survey of tyrosine kinase signaling reveals ROS kinase fusions in human cholangiocarcinoma.

Cholangiocarcinoma, also known as bile duct cancer, is the second most common primary hepatic carcinoma with a median survival of less than 2 years. The molecular mechanisms underlying the development of this disease are not clear. To survey activated tyrosine kinases signaling in cholangiocarcinoma, we employed immunoaffinity profiling coupled to mass spectrometry and identified DDR1, EPHA2, EGFR, and ROS tyrosine kinases, along with over 1,000 tyrosine phosphorylation sites from about 750 different proteins in primary cholangiocarcinoma patients. Furthermore, we confirmed the presence of ROS kinase fusions in 8.7% (2 out of 23) of cholangiocarcinoma patients. Expression of the ROS fusions in 3T3 cells confers transforming ability both in vitro and in vivo, and is responsive to its kinase inhibitor. Our data demonstrate that ROS kinase is a promising candidate for a therapeutic target and for a diagnostic molecular marker in cholangiocarcinoma. The identification of ROS tyrosine kinase fusions in cholangiocarcinoma, along with the presence of other ROS kinase fusions in lung cancer and glioblastoma, suggests that a more broadly based screen for activated ROS kinase in cancer is warranted.