Effect of photobiomodulation therapy as a multimodal approach to treatment of dermal abrasions in cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus).

Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) has become increasingly utilized in the zoo and aquarium fields to treat ailments in various species; however, its use in teleosts and elasmobranchs is relatively underrepresented in the literature. This study examined the efficacy of PBMT as an adjunct treatment to reduce the healing time of dermal abrasions in cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus). Ten cownose rays were included in this study and separated into control (n = 5) and treatment groups (n = 5). Animals in both treatment and control groups received intramuscular injections of enrofloxacin every 72 h to provide broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage. Cownose rays in the treatment group additionally received PBMT using the Companion® CTC-12 unit using the large, noncontact head. Control group rays were subjected to identical handling without the use of PBMT. A total of 196 Joules were delivered at a power of 2 W based on a dose of 5 J/cm2 at each session. Observational analysis revealed a lack of appreciable difference in healing time between the treatment and control groups in the aforementioned settings; however, it is recommended that PBMT protocols should be re-evaluated if there is little to no response in healing after three to four sessions. PBMT use on acute superficial dermal abrasions in cownose rays was well-tolerated in this study and may have utility in a multimodal treatment approach to wound healing. This study also produced a wound scoring metric based on photographs captured at each treatment. Future studies should utilize increased fluence (J/cm2) and irradiance (W/cm2) and incorporate synchronous histological analysis and increased sample size.

RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF NEUROLOGIC DISEASE IN STRANDED ATLANTIC HARBOR SEALS (PHOCA VITULINA CONCOLOR) ALONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST.

Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) are a common species admitted to marine mammal rehabilitation facilities. As important indicators of marine ecosystem health, monitoring trends of disease in harbor seal populations is critical. However, few studies have evaluated neurologic disease in this species. The general objective of this study was to retrospectively review and delineate neurologic disease in free-ranging Atlantic harbor seals (P. vitulina concolor) that stranded along the New England (United States) coast and entered a rehabilitation facility between 2006 and 2019. Any Atlantic harbor seal that stranded live along the New England coast during the study period and was diagnosed with neurologic disease on either antemortem or postmortem evaluation was included; medical records and pathologic reports were reviewed. From 211 records, 24 animals met the inclusion criteria. Prevalence of neurologic disease was 11% in the study population and six major categories of neurologic disease were identified including: inflammatory (54%), idiopathic (33%), trauma (4%), congenital (4%), and degenerative (4%). Of the seals diagnosed with neurologic disease, 13 (54%) seals died during rehabilitation, 10 (42%) seals were euthanized, and 1 (4%) seal survived to release. Unique cases seen included a seal with Dandy-Walker-like malformation and another seal with histopathologic findings compatible with neuroaxonal dystrophy, a degenerative process that has not been previously reported in marine mammals. This study contributes to the overall knowledge of the health of free-ranging Atlantic harbor seals and may aid clinicians in characterizing neurologic conditions that may be present in seals undergoing rehabilitation.

Fecal glucocorticoid analysis as a health monitoring tool for endangered African penguins (Spheniscus demersus).

African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) are an endangered species, with approximately 70,000 mature adults remaining in the wild. Population loss is linked to a combination of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. The aim of the study was to validate a commercially available enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to assess adrenal activity and measure the response to stressors in the feces of African penguins. Fecal samples (n = 609) were collected from 12 African penguins housed at Mystic Aquarium throughout their natural lifecycle, including breeding and molt, where measurable changes in fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) levels are predicted to occur. Fecal samples collected post-veterinary exam were used for biological validation. Longitudinal analysis shows a significant difference (p = <0.0001) between the average FGM levels during baseline and breeding season, 33.97 ± 1.30 ng/g and 50.21 ± 3.18 ng/g, respectively. Females displayed significantly higher FGM levels than males during both baseline (p = 0.0386; females = 38.80 ± 2.19 ng/g; males = 29.34 ± 1.37 ng/g) and breeding periods (p = 0.0175; females = 57.53 ± 4.84 ng/g; males = 42.69 ± 3.95 ng/g). Average FGM levels decreased significantly over the three-week molting period, from 85.40 ± 20.35 ng/g at week one to 20.23 ± 5.30 ng/g at week three. A seasonal difference in FGM levels was observed in both male and female fecal samples, with Fall having the highest average FGM levels, 54.38 ± 3.64 ng/g, and Summer the lowest, 30.87 ± 2.21 ng/g. General linear mixed model analysis determined that lifecycle (females) and visitor presence (males) were the two factors which best explained the variation in FGM levels observed, however neither factor was found to be significant. These results show FGM analysis can detect physiologically meaningful changes in endocrine activity in African penguins and can be used to monitor health for penguins in aquaria and in the wild, thus contributing to conservation efforts for the survival of the species.

INVESTIGATION OF THE USE OF SERUM BIOMARKERS FOR THE DETECTION OF CARDIAC DISEASE IN MARINE MAMMALS.

Cardiac disease has been extensively documented in marine mammals; however, it remains difficult to diagnose antemortem. Assays measuring cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are used as sensitive and specific biomarkers of cardiac disease in many species, but have not been widely investigated in marine mammals. This study aimed to provide a set of reference values for cTnI and NT-proBNP in belugas (BW) (Delphinapterus leucas), sea otters (SO) (Enhydra lutris), Steller sea lions (SSL) (Eumetopias jubatus), and California sea lions (CSL) (Zalophus californianus) with and without cardiac disease, and to determine if these biomarkers are useful indicators of cardiac disease in these species. First, existing immunoassays for cTnI and NT-proBNP were successfully validated utilizing species-specific heart lysate spiked serum. Cohorts were defined by histopathology as animals with no evidence of cardiac disease ("control"), with confirmed cardiac disease ("disease"), and with concurrent renal and cardiac disease ("renal") for which serum samples were then analyzed. Serum concentration ranges for cTnI (ng/ml) and NT-proBNP (pmol/L) were determined for control and disease cohorts. There was significantly higher cTnI (P= 0.003) and NT-proBNP (P= 0.004) concentrations in the CSL disease cohort, as well as positive trends in BW, SO, and SSL disease cohorts that did not reach statistical significance. NT-proBNP concentrations were significantly higher in the CSL renal cohort compared with the control (P < 0.001) and disease (P= 0.007) cohorts. These results suggest that cTnI and NT-proBNP may be clinically useful in the antemortem diagnosis of cardiac disease in CSL, and warrant further investigation in BW, SO, and SL.

BASELINE HEMATOLOGIC AND BIOCHEMICAL VALUES AND CORRELATIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS IN MANAGED JAPANESE SPIDER CRABS (MACROCHEIRA KAEMPFERI).

Although the evaluation of hematologic and biochemical parameters is a well-established diagnostic tool in vertebrate medicine, comprehensive understanding of these parameters in invertebrate species is lacking. This study provides baseline hemocyte concentrations and biochemistry values for a population of managed Japanese spider crabs (JSC; Macrocheira kaempferi) housed at six different public aquariums. The methodology for obtaining diagnostic hemolymph samples is described. Distinct hemocyte types were identified, including hyaline cells, semigranulocytes, and granulocytes, with hyaline cells as the predominant type. Correlates to exam findings and environmental parameters were evaluated and included higher absolute semigranulocyte counts (r = 0.65, P = 0.020) and triglyceride levels (r = 0.44, P = 0.014) in JSC with exoskeletal lesions; higher total protein (mean = 5.93 g/dl, P = 0.028), cholesterol (median = 18.5 mg/dl, P = 0.018), triglyceride (median = 15.5 mg/dl, P = 0.002), and amylase (median = 243 U/L, P = 0.013) in nonmolting JSC compared with JSC that have previously molted since acquisition (total protein mean = 4.83 g/dl, cholesterol median = 14 mg/dl, triglyceride median = 6.4 mg/dl, and amylase median = 131 U/L); and lower relative and absolute granulocyte counts (mean = 8.83% P = 0.030, median = 1,162 cells/µl P = 0.006, respectively) and higher albumin (median = 1.35 g/dl, P = 0.031) in JSC housed at facilities that used ozone sterilization. The data presented serve as a foundation for understanding basic clinical parameters in JSC hemolymph, as well as the potential influence of environmental stressors on those parameters.

Longitudinal analysis of pinnipeds in the northwest Atlantic provides insights on endemic circulation of phocine distemper virus.

Phocine distemper virus (PDV) is a morbillivirus that circulates within pinnipeds in the North Atlantic. PDV has caused two known unusual mortality events (UMEs) in western Europe (1988, 2002), and two UMEs in the northwest Atlantic (2006, 2018). Infrequent cross-species transmission and waning immunity are believed to contribute to periodic outbreaks with high mortality in western Europe. The viral ecology of PDV in the northwest Atlantic is less well defined and outbreaks have exhibited lower mortality than those in western Europe. This study sought to understand the molecular and ecological processes underlying PDV infection in eastern North America. We provide phylogenetic evidence that PDV was introduced into northwest Atlantic pinnipeds by a single lineage and is now endemic in local populations. Serological and viral screening of pinniped surveillance samples from 2006 onward suggest there is continued circulation of PDV outside of UMEs among multiple species with and without clinical signs. We report six full genome sequences and nine partial sequences derived from harbour and grey seals in the northwest Atlantic from 2011 through 2018, including a possible regional variant. Work presented here provides a framework towards greater understanding of how recovering populations and shifting species may impact disease transmission.

Use of a canine melanoma vaccine in the management of malignant melanoma in an African penguin (Spheniscus demersus).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 25-year-old 4.4-kg male aquarium-hatched African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) was evaluated because of a raised 1.5 × 0.5-cm pigmented mass extending from within the right naris noted 2 days earlier. CLINICAL FINDINGS: The penguin had a raised pigmented mass extending out from the right naris and onto the upper beak. Histologic examination of excisional biopsy specimens confirmed a diagnosis of malignant melanoma. A treatment plan including administration of meloxicam, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy was initiated. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Treatment with meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h) was initiated and continued for a total of 45 weeks; however, the medication was discontinued for a period of 6 weeks because of the risk of toxic effects in the chick that the penguin was feeding at that time. The penguin underwent local hypofractionated radiation therapy and received 4 once weekly 8-Gy fractions of radiation (total radiation dose, 32 Gy). The penguin was administered a canine melanoma vaccine transdermally every other week for 4 doses, with a booster injection given 7 months after the first dose. Treatment with the vaccine appeared to have no adverse effects. The penguin's pre- and postvaccination tyrosinase-specific antibody titers were measured with an anti-human tyrosinase-specific ELISA, and a 3-fold titer increase indicated a positive humoral immune response to the canine melanoma vaccination. The penguin died of unrelated causes 54 weeks after initial diagnosis, and there was no evidence of metastasis on necropsy. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These case findings suggested that vaccination with a canine melanoma vaccine may be a safe and useful adjunct treatment for management of malignant melanoma in penguins.

RADIOGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF GASTRIC EMPTYING AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRANSIT TIME IN COWNOSE RAYS (RHINOPTERA BONASUS) AND WHITESPOTTED BAMBOO SHARKS (CHILOSCYLLIUM PLAGIOSUM) AND THE EFFECT OF METOCLOPRAMIDE ON GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY.

Gastrointestinal (GI) pathology is common in elasmobranchs; however, information regarding normal GI transit time and the effect of therapeutics on GI motility is lacking. The objective of this study was to determine baseline gastric emptying and GI transit times in cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and whitespotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) via radiographic barium sulfate contrast studies. Additionally, a pilot study was undertaken to determine the effect of metoclopramide on GI transit time in whitespotted bamboo sharks. Eight cownose rays and eight whitespotted bamboo sharks were administered a 98% w/w barium sulfate suspension at 8 ml/kg via orogastric tube. Post-contrast radiographs were obtained at 2 min, 3, 6, 12, and 23 hr for rays; and 2 min, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 25, 30, 36, and every 12 hr until complete gastric emptying occurred for sharks. In cownose rays, the mean and standard error were established for time of initial spiral colon filling (3.4 ± 0.4 hr), complete spiral colon opacification (12 ± 0 hr), initial spiral colon emptying (21.6 ± 1.4 hr), and complete gastric emptying (23 ± 0 hr). In bamboo sharks, the mean and standard error were established for time of initial spiral colon filling (5.3 ± 0.5 hr), complete spiral colon opacification (12.4 ± 1.3 hr), initial spiral colon emptying (22.5 ± 2.7 hr), and complete gastric emptying (39.9 ± 3.3 hr). Cownose rays had a significantly shorter time to spiral colon filling and complete gastric emptying compared with bamboo sharks (P < 0.05). Whitespotted bamboo sharks (n = 8) were administered metoclopramide (0.4 mg/kg orally once daily for 10 days) and the barium series was repeated. Complete gastric emptying time was significantly shorter in treated sharks compared with control (P < 0.05), suggesting that metoclopramide may be a useful therapeutic for GI motility disorders in elasmobranchs.

Snake Fungal Disease in Colubridae Snakes in Connecticut, USA in 2015 and 2017.

Snake fungal disease (SFD), caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, is an emerging threat to wild snake populations in the US. Data regarding its distribution, prevalence, and population-level impacts are sparse, and more information is needed to better manage SFD in the wild. In this study, we captured 38 wild snakes of five species in Connecticut in the summers of 2015 and 2017. Skin lesions were biopsied and evaluated histologically for fungal dermatitis. At least one individual from each species was positive for SFD, and 48% of snakes sampled in 2015 and 39% of snakes sampled in 2017 were positive for SFD. A Dekay's brownsnake (Storeria dekayi dekayi) with SFD lesions, captured in the summer of 2017, extended the host range of the disease. Thus, SFD was present in wild Connecticut snakes in 2015 and 2017, which demonstrated a wide-spread distribution throughout the state.

Prognostic indicators for survival in African penguin chicks (Spheniscus demersus): A retrospective analysis.

Mystic Aquarium has successfully maintained an active breeding population of African penguins since 1990. Between 1990 and 2015, 477 eggs were laid, 84 of which were recommended for rearing according to the SSP Breeding and Transfer Plan. Sixty-five percent hatched successfully, and total fertility ranged from 56% to 78%. Of the 55 hatchlings, 60% of chicks reached fledgling age (80 days). Of the 22 chicks that died before fledging, 59% died within 7 days of hatching, and 82% within 30 days of hatching. Categories of mortality were broken down into the following categories: failure to thrive (in the absence of a definitive cause of death) (41%), respiratory disease (32%), parent-associated trauma (13%), congenital defects (9%), and gastrointestinal disease (5%). Analysis of associated factors identified a significant correlation between the hatch weights of chicks that survived beyond day 7 (60.5-66.0 g), and those that did not (49.5-59.5 g). Further positive correlations were established between chick hatch weight and both dam body weight, and egg weight. While hand-reared chicks gained weight more slowly than their parent-reared counterparts, results showed that rearing method had no significant impact on survival. The findings of this study provide a baseline for assessing reproductive success and chick mortality, and supply prognostic indicators for evaluating chick success in managed African penguin populations.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma associated with Zalophus californianus papillomavirus 1 in a California sea lion.

Papillomaviruses (PVs) are found in many species and infect epithelial cells at both mucosal and cutaneous sites. PVs are generally species-specific and cause benign epithelial proliferations, often forming papillomas or plaques. Rarely, these infections can persist, allowing progression to in situ and invasive cancers. We describe herein a case of multiple cutaneous pigmented plaques from a California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus) that progressed to in situ and invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). The lesions were characterized by epithelial hyperplasia, hyperkeratosis, and hypergranulosis that bordered more dysplastic areas, and, at one site, bordered an invasive SCC. Immunohistochemistry for papillomavirus antigen revealed strong nuclear immunoreactivity within keratinocytes in the hyperplastic epidermis. PCR was performed using degenerate and specific primers to detect papillomavirus DNA. Specific primers were used to amplify Zalophus californianus papillomavirus 1 (ZcPV-1), the only sea lion papillomavirus known to date. We detected ZcPV-1 DNA within the pigmented plaque, and in both in situ and invasive SCC samples.

CIRCULATING CONCENTRATIONS OF THYROID HORMONE IN BELUGA WHALES (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS): INFLUENCE OF AGE, SEX, AND SEASON.

Thyroid hormones play a critical physiologic role in regulating protein synthesis, growth, and metabolism. To date, because no published compilation of baseline values for thyroid hormones in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) exists, assessment of thyroid hormone concentrations in this species has been underused in clinical settings. The purpose of this study was to document the concentrations of total thyroxine (tT4) and total triiodothyronine (tT3) in healthy aquarium-maintained and free-ranging beluga whales and to determine the influence of age, sex, and season on the thyroid hormone concentrations. Archived serum samples were collected from healthy aquarium-maintained (n=43) and free-ranging (n=39) belugas, and serum tT4 and tT3 were measured using chemiluminescence immunoassay. The mean tT4 concentration in aquarium-maintained belugas was 5.67±1.43 µg/dl and the mean tT3 concentration was 70.72±2.37 ng/dl. Sex comparisons showed that aquarium-maintained males had significantly greater tT4 and tT3 (9.70±4.48 µg/dl and 92.65±30.55 ng/dl, respectively) than females (7.18±2.82 µg/dl and 77.95±20.37 ng/dl) (P=0.004 and P=0.013). Age comparisons showed that aquarium-maintained whales aged 1-5 yr had the highest concentrations of tT4 and tT3 (8.17±0.17 µg/dl and 105.46±1.98 ng/dl, respectively) (P=0.002 and P<0.001). tT4 concentrations differed significantly between seasons, with concentrations in winter (4.59±1.09 µg/dl) being significantly decreased compared with spring (P=0.009), summer (P<0.0001), and fall (P<0.0001) concentrations. There was a significant difference in tT4 and tT3 concentrations between aquarium-maintained whales (5.67±1.43 µg/dl and 70.72±15.57 ng/dl, respectively) and free-ranging whales (11.71±3.36 µg/dl and 103.38±26.45 ng/dl) (P<0.0001 and P<0.001). Clinicians should consider biologic and environmental influences (age, sex, and season) for a more accurate interpretation of thyroid hormone concentrations in belugas. The findings of this study provide a baseline for thyroid health monitoring and comprehensive health assessments in both aquarium-maintained and free-ranging beluga whales.

Discovery of a novel circular DNA virus in the Forbes sea star, Asterias forbesi.

A single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus, Asterias forbesi-associated circular virus (AfaCV), was discovered in a Forbes sea star displaying symptoms of sea star wasting disease (SSWD). The AfaCV genome organization is typical of circular Rep-encoding ssDNA (CRESS-DNA) viruses and is similar to that of members of the family Circoviridae. PCR-based surveys indicate that AfaCV is not clearly associated with SSWD, whereas the sea star-associated densovirus (SSaDV), recently implicated in SSWD in the Pacific, was prevalent in symptomatic specimens. AfaCV represents the first CRESS-DNA virus detected in echinoderms, adding to the growing diversity of these viruses recently recovered from invertebrates.

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in six harbor seals (Phoca vitulina spp.).

Six cases of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma were identified in six captive adult Pacific (Phoca vitulina richardsii; n = 2) and Atlantic (Phoca vitulina concolor; n = 4) harbor seals. These seals presented with intermittent dysphagia, regurgitation, inappetence, and abnormal posturing. Common clinical pathology findings in these seals included azotemia, hyperproteinemia, hyperglobulinemia, and leukocytosis. Gastrointestinal endoscopy commonly revealed an ulcerated mass near the gastroesophageal junction. Each seal was euthanized (n = 3) due to poor prognosis, subsequently died while undergoing an anesthetic procedure (n = 2), or found dead (n = 1). The diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma was confirmed via biopsy of esophageal mucosa during endoscopy or histopathologic examination of affected tissues after necropsy. On the basis of clinical and postmortem findings, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in aged harbor seals exhibiting clinical signs of regurgitation, decreased appetite or anorexia, vomiting, and/or abnormal posturing.

Valvular dysplasia and congestive heart failure in a juvenile African penguin (Spheniscus demersus).

Abstract: An aquarium-housed, 6-mo-old African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) presented with acute respiratory distress. Auscultation revealed a grade II-III systolic murmur in the absence of adventitial sounds, and an enlarged heart without pulmonary edema was seen radiographically. Echocardiographic evaluation revealed atrioventricular (AV) valvular dysplasia and ventricular enlargement. The penguin was treated with enalapril, furosemide, and pimobendan but died within 3 wk of detection of the murmur. Congenital dysplasia of the right AV valve with right atrial and ventricular dilation and ventricular hypertrophy were diagnosed on postmortem examination.

Xanthogranulomatous panniculitis of the head of an aquarium-maintained California moray.

An aquarium-maintained male California moray Gymnothorax mordax had a symmetrical enlargement of the soft tissues of the head dorsal to the cranium for 2 years prior to its death. This individual was anesthetized for radiographic and ultrasonographic examination of the lesion, and blood was collected for plasma biochemical analytes and lipid profiles. Radiographs and ultrasound of the lesion demonstrated a symmetrical and homogeneous soft tissue density that was consistent with adipose tissue. Plasma cholesterol and triglyceride values appeared elevated; therefore, the animal's diet was amended to decrease fat consumption. Triglyceride values decreased after dietary changes were made; however, values for cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins, and low-density lipoproteins fluctuated but remained largely unchanged. Histopathological assessment of the lesion revealed localized xanthogranulomatous inflammation of hypodermal adipose tissue. The etiology of the lesion in this animal was never determined. This paper describes the first documented case of localized xanthogranulomatous panniculitis in a California moray and demonstrates the need for additional research on specific dietary requirements, species-specific physiological differences, and lesions involving the adipose tissue of morays in comparison with other teleost species.

Hiatal hernia in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) pup.

A 2-wk-old stranded harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) rescued by Mystic Aquarium showed signs of the presence of a hiatal hernia during rehabilitation. Contrast radiographs of esophagus and stomach revealed an intrathoracic radiodensity that contains filling defects typical of stomach, consistent with gastric rugal folds. Mural thickening was observed at the level of the cardia consistent with a diagnosis of a hiatal hernia. Although clinical improvement was noted with medical therapy and tube feeding, surgical correction of the hiatal hernia was considered necessary for full resolution. However, owing to the animal's low body weight, the corrective hernia surgery was postponed until the body condition improved. The seal needed to be surgically treated for a corneal ulcer, and while anesthetized with isoflurane, the seal became dyspneic and developed cardiac arrhythmias; ultimately cardiac arrest ensued. Resuscitation was unsuccessfully attempted and the seal was euthanized. Necropsy confirmed the radiographic diagnosis and further characterized a paraesophageal hiatal hernia.

Systemic mycosis in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) with detection of cystofilobasidiales DNA.

A 6-yr-old, intact male California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) with a systemic mycosis died after 5 wk of antifungal drug therapy. Antemortem clinical findings included hind flipper swelling, ring-lesions on skin of the flippers, and dermal nodules that increased in size and number spreading from the hind flippers and ventral abdomen to the foreflippers and muzzle. Lesions were accompanied by severe lymphadenopathy and development of systemic clinical signs despite therapy using itraconazole and later voriconazole. Histopathologic evaluation of biopsies revealed granulomatous dermatitis due to infection by fungus-producing yeast cells in tissue. Isolation attempts, using biopsied skin and tissue samples collected at necropsy, failed to yield growth of a fungus producing yeast cells like those in histologic section. Consensus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests of biopsied skin for fungal DNA produced an amplicon having significant sequence identity with a Cystofilobasidiales, a fungus belonging to a subclade that includes several Cryptococcus spp. Histopathologic evaluation of necropsy tissues revealed a systemic mycosis with yeast cells disseminated throughout subcutis, lymph nodes, and viscera. Hepatic necrosis was identified associated with acute liver failure, possibly from the voriconazole administration. This is the first report documenting the clinical presentation, treatment, and pathologic findings of infection associated with Cystofilobasidiales in a marine mammal and serves to expand the understanding of mycoses in pinnipeds.

Evaluation of potential variables contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in a population of aquarium-maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus).

Bumblefoot (pododermatitis), often described as the most significant environmental disease of captive penguins, is commonly due to excessive pressure or trauma on the plantar surface of the avian foot, resulting in inflammation or necrosis and causing severe swelling, abrasions, or cracks in the skin. Although not formally evaluated in penguins, contributing factors for bumblefoot are thought to be similar to those initiating the condition in raptors and poultry. These factors include substrate, body weight, and lack of exercise. The primary purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate variables potentially contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in aquarium-maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), including sex, weight, age, season, exhibit activity, and territory substrate. Results indicate that males develop significantly more plantar lesions than females. Penguins weighing between 3.51 and 4.0 kg develop plantar lesions significantly more often than penguins weighing between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, and because male African penguins ordinarily weigh significantly more than females, weight is likely a contributing factor in the development of lesions in males compared with females. Significantly more plantar lesions were observed in penguins standing for greater than 50% of their time on exhibit than swimming. Penguins occupying smooth concrete territories developed more plantar lesions compared with penguins occupying grate territories. Recommendations for minimizing bumblefoot in African penguins include training penguins for monthly foot examinations for early detection of plantar lesions predisposing for the disease, encouraging swimming activity, and replacing smooth surfaces on exhibit with surfaces providing variable degrees of pressure and texture on the feet.

Plasma biochemistry values of recently wild-caught purple mouth moray eels (Gymnothorax vicinus).

The primary purpose of this study was to establish plasma biochemistry parameters for healthy recently wild-caught purple mouth moray eels (Gymnothorax vicinus) to provide a baseline of data for improved medical care in an aquarium or zoologic setting and for wild health assessments. Thirty-one clinically healthy purple mouth moray eels of unknown age and sex were caught from the wild, and were anesthetized 50 days following capture for blood collection from the ventral coccygeal vein. The median plasma biochemistry values were as follows: hematocrit = 21%, creatinine kinase = 2,100 U/L, lactate dehydrogenase = 97 U/L, aspartate aminotransferase = 88 U/L, alanine aminotransferase = 51 U/L, alkaline phosphatase 3,939 U/L, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase = 1 U/L, amylase = 40 U/L, blood urea nitrogen = < 11 mg/dl, glucose = 21 mg/dl, calcium = 12.5 mg/dl, triglyceride = 206 mg/dl, creatinine = 0.1 mg/dl, cholesterol = 334 mg/dl, total bilirubin = < 0.1 mg/dl, phosphorus = 6.5 mg/dl, total protein = 4.2 g/dl, albumin = 1.5 g/dl, globulin = 2.7 g/dl, albumin/ globulin ratio = 0.6, sodium = 185 mmol/L, potassium = 3.7 mmol/L, and chloride = 175 mmol/L. Alkaline phosphatase isoenzyme results indicate that the majority of the plasma alkaline phosphatase is the liver isoenzyme. The data acquired in this study also provide baseline values for cholesterol and triglycerides in recently wild-caught moray eels to aid in monitoring elevations to these values in an aquarium setting over time so adjustments to the dietary regime may be utilized to prevent or improve conditions such as lipid keratopathy.